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Agnc, -Forestry.  Maia  U 


£525  'JRotvi* 


Commonwealth  of  Pennsylvania 


DEPA:  .VIENT  OF  FORESTRY 


BULLETIN  NO.   11.— JUNE,  1914. 
Revised  July,  1915. 


PENNSYLVANIA  TREES 


BY 

J.  S.  ILLICK,  A.  B.,  F.  E., 

Professor  of  Dendrology  and  Forest  Management, 
Pennsylvania  State  Forest  Academy. 


ISSUED  BY  DIRECTION  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  FORESTRY 


HAKRTSBURG,  PA.: 
.       STANLEY  RAY.  STATE  PRINTER 
1915 


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•.  .• : : ;  :  • 

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.  -  Forestry  -  M»!a  Librmry 


PENNSYLVANIA  DEPARTMENT  OF  FORESTRY 

ROBERT  S.  CONKLIN, 
Commissioner  of  Forestry. 

IRVIN  C.  WILLIAMS, 

Deputy  Commissioner  of  Forestry. 


STATE  FORESTRY  RESERVATION  COMMISSION. 

ROBERT  S.  CONKLIN, 
President. 

SIMON  B.  ELLIOTT 
J.  LINN  HARRIS 
WM.  P.  STEVENSON. 
J.  M.  HOFFMAN. 


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(4) 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


Hon.  Robert  S.  Conklin, 

Commissioner  of  Forestry. 

Dear  Sir:  In  compliance  with  your  request  I  have  the  honor  to 
transmit  herewith  the  manuscript,  plates,  and  photographs  for  a  re- 
vised edition  of  the  bulletin  on  "Pennsylvania  Trees."  It  is  the  hope 
of  the  writer  that  the  bulletin  may  aid  in  developing  a  fuller  appre- 
ciation of  the  importance  and  value  of  our  trees  and  forests. 

Yours  respectfully, 

J.  S.  ILLICK. 
Mont  Alto,  Pa., 
July,  1915. 


(5) 


PREFACE 


Trees  are  among  the  commonest  and  most  conspicuous  objects 
of  nature.  The  numerous  products  derived  from  them  are  very  use- 
ful, often  indispensable.  In  all  ages  trees  and  grasses  have  been 
the  most  important  products  of  the  soil.  A  dense  and  valuable  tree 
growth  covered  originally  almost  the  entire  area  of  Pennsylvania. 
About  278  species  of  trees  and  shrubs  are  native  to  this  State,  of 
which  number  125  are  trees.  The  number  of  native  representatives 
in  the  present  forests  is  the  same  as  in  the  original  forest.  While 
the  number  of  representatives  remains  the  same,  yet  one  finds  a 
marked  difference  in  the  degree  of  their  abundance,  and  in  their  age, 
size,  form,  density,  quality,  value,  and  productivity.  The  original 
forest  of  the  State  was  large,  dense,  and  extremely  productive.  The 
present  forests  are  small,  open,  and  very  unproductive.  Each  gener- 
ation of  mankind  has  seen  a  smaller,  more  open,  and  less  productive 
generation  of  forests.  It  is  not  a  prophecy,  but  the  statement  of 
a  fact,  when  we  say  that  the  source  of  our  timber  supply  is  becom- 
ing an  acute  and  vital  question.  Fast-vanishing  forests  and  ever- 
rising  lumber  prices  are  couriers  of  this  fact.  The  Federal  and  some 
State  Governments  have  already  inaugurated  policies  to  offset  the 
present  destructive  tendency  in  our  forests  by  starting  constructive 
work.  To  date  no  state  has  made  a  greater  advance  in  forestry  than 
Pennsylvania.  She  has,  however,  just  started  on  this  useful  mission. 
The  men  who  are  directing  her  forest  policies  are  endeavoring  to 
lay  a  substantial  foundation  upon  which  a  stable  superstructure  may 
be  reared.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  it  is  necessary  to  have  the 
co-operation  of  the  citizens  of  the  State,  especially  the  woodland 
owners  and  managers.  Forestry  needs  the  support  of  public  senti- 
ment. No  substantial  and  permanent  advance  is  insured  until  our 
citizens'  understand  the  fundamentals  of  forestry  and  can  distin- 
guish the  important  timber  trees  from  the  inferior  weed  trees.  It 
is  hoped  that  the  sphere  of  usefulness  of  this  bulletin  will  not  be 
limited  to  woodland  owners  and  managers,  but  will  extend  to  lay- 
men, students,  and  botanists. 

Part  I  is  intended  for  the  layman  and  the  beginner  of  forestry.  A 
careful  perusal  of  this  part  will  enable  one  to  comprehend  Part  II 
more  fully.  The  former  comprises  abstracts  from  the  author's  lec- 

(7) 


8 

tures  on  Elementary  Forestry  at  the  Pennsylvania   State   Forest 
Academy. 

Part  II  is  essentially  a  manual  of  Pennsylvania  trees.  It  com- 
prises a  discussion  on  the  identification  of  trees  and  a  description  of 
families,  genera,  and  species,  with  accompanying  keys.  The  descrip- 
tive material  and  keys  are  the  outgrowth  of  typewritten  outline 
notes  prepared  by  the  author  and  used  for  the  past  six  years  in  con- 
nection with  a  course  in  dendrology  given  at  the  Pennsylvania  State 
Forest  Academy.  Each  species  is  described  under  about  14  headings. 
No  special  originality  is  claimed  for  the  characteristics  given  under 
these  headings.  It  is  natural  to  expect  that  the  descriptive  mater- 
ial should  correspond  with  that  found  in  other  texts.  The  author 
is  glad  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  the  many  books  of  refer- 
ence which  were  frequently  consulted  to  verify  observations  and  to 
make  the  description  clear  and  complete.  The  range  of  the  species 
and  the  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  their  wood  (air  dry)  have  been 
drawn  chiefly  from  Sargent's  "The  Silva  of  North  America."  The 
distribution  in  Pennsylvania  was  worked  out  in  co-operation  with 
the  foresters  connected  with  the  Department  of  Forestry  and  a  few 
others  interested  in  the  distribution  of  trees.  Porter's  "Flora  of 
Pennsylvania"  aided  considerably  in  determining  the  distribution. 
Our  present  knowledge  of  the  distribution  of  the  different  species 
in  the  State  is  by  no  means  complete.  Special  efforts  are  being  put 
forth  to  ascertain  it  more  accurately.  Future  publications  will  con- 
tain the  results  of  the  present  and  prospective  surveys  covering  the 
distribution  of  our  trees.  Any  additions,  suggestions,  or  corrections 
will  be  gladly  received. 

The  scientific  names  found  in  this  bulletin  are  those  used  by  the 
Department  of  Forestry,  which  follows  the  usage  of  the  seventh  edi- 
tion of  Gray's  New  Manual  of  Botany.  Shifting  of  individual 
plates  from  their  proper  systematic  position  was  necessary  in  a  few 
cases  in  order  to  place  two  companion  plates  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
same  sheet. 

The  photographic  illustrations,  103  in  number,  are  all  original 
by  the  author,  except  Figs.  57  and  63  supplied  by  W.  Gardiner  Oonk- 
lin;  Fig.  22  supplied  by  Guy  Carleton  Hawkins;  Figs.  21  and  35 
supplied  by  B.  J.  Gutknecht,  and  Figs.  1,  3,  4,  10,  and  12  supplied 
by  the  Pennsylvania  Department  of  Forestry. 

The  drawings  have  been  made  by  Miss  Margaretta  Washington,  of 
Philadelphia,  either  from  specimens  supplied  by  the  author  or  re- 
drawn and  adapted  from  Sargent's  "The  Silva  of  North  America"  by 
special  permission  of  the  publisher,  Houghton  Mifflin  Company.  In 
making  some  of  the  drawings  Schneider's  "Dendrologische  Winter- 
studien"  and  some  of  the  reports  of  the  Missouri  Botanical  Garden 
were  consulted. 


9 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  tendered  to  Hon.  Robert  S.  Conklin, 
Commissioner  of  Forestry,  at  whose  suggestion  the  bulletin  was 
started  and  under  whose  careful  and  constant  direction  it  was  de- 
veloped. Especial  acknowledgment  is  due  to  Hon.  I.  C.  Williams, 
Deputy  Commissioner  of  Forestry,  who  read  the  entire  manuscript, 
for  his  inspiration,  many  valuable  suggestions  and  criticism.  Thanks 
are  due  to  George  H.  Wirt,  Forest  Inspector,  and  Prof.  George  A. 
Retan  for  their  assistance  and  valuable  suggestions. 

I  take  pleasure  in  expressing  my  gratification  to  all  others  who 
have  in  any  way  assisted  in  this  publication,  especially  the  students 
of  the  Pennsylvania  State  Forest  Academy  for  their  co-operation, 
and  the  graduates  for  their  assistance  in  collecting  data  concerning 
the  distribution  of  trees  in  this  State. 

J.  S.   ILLTCK. 


(It) 


CONTENTS 


PART  I. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

Page. 

The    North   American   Forest ,     13 

Forests  of  Pennsylvania 13 

The   Forests   and    Forestry ,     . . .  • 16 

Forestry  in  Pennsylvania ,    17 

The  Structure  of  the  Forest, 19 

The  Establishment  of  the  Forest,    21 

The  Development  of  the  Forest, 23 

The  Protection  of  the  Forest,    26 

The  Value   of   Forests ,    28 

The  Value  of  Trees ,    29 

Deciduous  and   Evergreen  Trees ,    30 

The  Age  of  Trees,    31 

The  Form  and  Structure  of  Trees ,    '. 32 

1.  Form,     32 

2.  Bark,    34 

3.  Twigs, 36 

4.  Buds,     38 

5.  Leaves, 40 

6 .  Leaf-scars   and   Bundle-scars ,     43 

7 .  Flowers ,     44 

8.  Fruit,     46 

9.  Wood,     , 49 


PART  II. 


MANUAL  OF  PENNSYLVANIA  TREES. 

Identification    of    Species ,     55 

Names    of   Trees ,     , 55 

Explanation  of  Terms  and  Headings, 56 

How  to  Identify  the  Species  and  Use  the  Keys, 58 

General  Key  to  the  Families ,    63 

Tabulation  of  Genera  and  Species ,    65 

Description  of  the  Families,   Genera,   and  Species,    67 

Glossary ,     220 

Index, 225 

(11) 


(12) 


f  warn*  or 


FORESTRY 


C0U.CGE  Of  A  AGRtCUir     - 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFO.S,,    , 

PART  I. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


THE   NORTH  AMERICAN  FOREST. 

There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  major  part  of  the  habi- 
table earth  was  originally  wooded.  North  America  is  no  exception 
to  this.  The  original  forest  extended  from  the  Atlantic  coast  west 
to  about  the  ninetieth  meridan  having  only  a  few  small  openings  like 
meadows  and  the  tops  of  mountains.  It  also  covered  a  large  portion 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  and  the  Pacific  slope.  Estimates 
place  the  aggregate  original  area  of  the  forests  of  North  America 
at  about  850,000,000  acres.  This  original  area  has  been  so  reduced 
that  not  more  than  550,000,000  acres  remain  at  the  present  time 
and  a  large  portion  of  this  acreage  is  in  a  very  unproductive  condi- 
tion. 

The  original  forest  of  this  country  was  vast  in  extent  and  com- 
posed of  many  and  valuable  species.  The  richness  and  variety  of 
our  tree  growth  may  be  in  part  attributed  to  the  different  climatic 
zones  and  variable  physiographic  features  common  to  this  country. 
So  variable  is  our  forest  structure  that  at  least  five  general  forest 
regions  may  be  recognized  while  often  a  local  area  may  have  its 
own  peculiar  forest  type. 

Many  of  the  trees  in  the  original  forest  attained  a  great  age  and 
enormous  size.  They  yielded  a  vast  amount  of  valuable  products,  a 
source  of  great  wealth,  which  has  been  supplying  the  raw  material 
for  one  of  our  most  important  industries.  Nature  working  through 
many  centuries  developed  the  original  forest  and  gave  it  to  us  grat- 
uitously. Man  working  through  only  a  few  centuries  has  established 
a  great  industry — the  lumber  industry;  but  on  the  other  hand  he 
has  wastefully  exploited  our  forests  and  left  many  of  them  in  an  un- 
productive condition.  However,  there  was  no  alternative  because 
the  eco'nomic  conditions  then  prevailing  required,  in  part  at  least, 
this  wasteful  procedure. 

FORESTS   OF  PENNSYLVANIA. 

The  word  Pennsylvania  means  Penn's  woods.  It  derived  its  name 
from  its  early  proprietor  and  the  dense  and  extensive  forest  growth 

(13) 


14    , 

which  covered  the  State.  The  original  forest  covered  almost  its  en- 
tire area,  which  is  usually  given  as  28,594,560  acres.  Practically 
the  entire  State,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  natural  meadows  and 
the  tops  of  a  few  mountains,  was  covered  with  trees.  The  original 
forest  was  composed  of  many  and  valuable  species  often  occurring  in 
dense  sttmds.  th,:e  richness  of  our  forest  flora  is  due  to  its  favorable 
location  with  reference  to  climatic  and  physiographic  factors.  Penn- 
sybniiia  ii&Wjnoftt&g  ground  of  many  northern  and  southern  spec- 
ies. In  the  western  part  of  the  State  one  finds  outposts  of  species 
common  to  the  Mississippi  valley,  while  in  the  southeastern  part 
some  of  the  species  of  the  coast  region  are  found.  Some  of  the  north- 
ern species  have  their  southern  limits  here,  or  else  follow  the  moun- 
tains toward  the  south,  while  some  of  the  southern  species  have  their 
northern  limits  here,  usually  migrating  northward  through  the  val- 
leys. The  forests  in  the  southeastern  and  the  western  parts  of  the 
State  are  composed  almost  entirely  of  hardwoods,  while  the  central 
and  the  northern  or  mountainous  parts  are  composed  of  a  mixture 
of  hardwoods  and  conifers.  One  may  find  the  hardwoods  by  them- 
selves and  the  conifers  by  themselves,  or  they  may  occur  in  mixture. 
A  few  of  our  native  species  are  very  valuable,  while  others  are  less 
valuable  and  some  mere  forest  weeds.  The  real  value  of  a  species 
changes  with  the  change  of  the  general  economic,  particularly  market, 
conditions.  Within  the  last  decade  market  prices  of  wood  have  risen 
so  much  that  they  have  brought  about  a  more  intensive  utilization  of 
our  forest  products.  Many  species  formerly  left  standing  in  the 
forest  are  now  utilized.  A  moment's  reflection  upon  the  present 
tendency  in  the  utilization  of  the  products  of  the  various  trees  causes 
us  to  comprehend  fully  the  truth  of  the  statement  that  the  despised 
species  of  to-day  will  be  prized  tomorrow.  The  richness  of  the 
arborescent  flora  together  with  the  great  age  and  large  size  which 
some  of  the  trees  attained  justifies  the  statement  that  Pennsylvania 
was  at  one  time  "one  of  the  best  timbered  states  of  the  Atlantic 
Coast." 

Nature  working  through  many  centuries  developed  in  this  State 
a  forest  which  was  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  many  heritages 
with  which  its  citizens  have  been  blessed.  If  we  could  see  maps 
showing  the  structure  and  distribution  of  the  forests  of  Pennsylvania 
in  the  years  1600  and  1900,  we  would  be  astonished  by  the  wonderful 
change  that  has  taken  place  in  a  period  that  represents  only  a  few 
generations  of  trees.  Many  were  the  agents  which  brought  about 
this  change,  but  it  was  left  to  man  to  play  the  leading  role.  Man 
working  through  a  few  centuries  has  removed  the  forest  or  abused 
it  through  fire  and  unregulated  cutting.  The  establishment  of  pio- 
neer homes,  the  opening  of  agricultural  and  grazing  lands,  the  in- 
crease of  population,  the  development  of  industrial  enterprises,  the 


Fig.    1.     STAND  OF  PENNSYLVANIA  VIRGIN  WHITE  PINE. 

The  kind  of  forest  our  forefathers  found.     A  magnificent  heritage.     The  real  value 

was  not  appreciated. 


"'  -•  '  • 

Fig.  2.    RESULT   OF    EXTENSIVE    FOREST    EXPLOITATION. 

High  stumps,    and  a  thin  scattered  growth  of  inferior  trees,   is  all  that  remains. 
The  stumps  indicate  the  density  and  size  of  the  original  stand. 


Fig.  3.     ACRES  OF  DESOLATION. 

More  than  5,000.000  acres  of  such  barren  land  are  found  in  Pennsylvania.    Much 
valuable  timber  was  lost  through  reckless  exploitation  of  the  original  forest. 


ACRES  OF  SCRUB  OAK 


15 

destructive  work  of  lumbermen,  and  the  advent  of  forestry  present 
a  picture  of  change  and  progress,  which  enables  us  in  part  to  com- 
prehend the  important  role  that  man  played  in  transforming  the 
original  forest  into  the  present  forest. 

Pennsylvania  originally  contained  large,  dense,  and  extremely  pro- 
ductive forests.  The  large  have  become  small,  the  dense  have  be- 
come open,  the  productive  have  become  unproductive.  Each  genera- 
tion of  mankind  has  seen  a  smaller,  more  open,  and  less  productive 
generation  of  forests.  The  march  of  forest  destruction  has  been 
rapid  and  severe  and  yet  inevitable  on  account  of  existing  economic 
conditions.  While  originally  almost  the  total  area  of  the  State  was 
covered  with  tree-growth,  to-day  less  than  50  per  cent,  is  covered 
by  woody  growth  and  over  5,000,000  acres  of  this  is  barren  or  un- 
productive, while  many  more  acres  are  poorly  stocked  with  trees. 
Most  of  our  woodland  areas  are 'at  present  in  a  very  unproductive 
unsanitary,  unattractive,  and  unregulated  condition. 

Economic  conditions  have  changed  and  the  old  order  of  things  need 
not  continue.  We  must  substitute  conservative  lumbering  for  the 
wasteful  exploitation  of  the  past.  We  must  do  constructive  work  in 
our  forests  now  to  recompense  for  the  destructive  work  carried  on 
during  the  last  few  centuries.  We  should  aim  to  show  our  social 
and  civic  worth  by  handing  down  to  future  generations  a  heritage 
equivalent  to  that  which  we  received  from  our  forefathers.  In  order 
to  do  proper  constructive  work  it  is  necessary  to  establish  a  goal 
or  an  ideal  and  develop  proper  methods  by  which  it  can  be  reached 
or  at  least  approximated.  We  need  not  be  entirely  original  in  this 
work  since  a  few  countries  like  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  France 
have  already  in  more  than  a  century  of  experience  laid  the  founda- 
tion for  conservative  and  constructive  forestry.  We  can  learn  much 
from  these  countries.  A  visit  to  their  carefully  managed  forests 
together  with  a  general  survey  of  the  methods  which  they  use  in 
managing  them  will  be  helpful  in  formulating  plans  for  our  Ideal 
or  Normal  Forest.  We  may  not  be  able  to  adopt  their  methods  but 
we  can  at  least  adapt  them.  The  question  at  once  presents  itself: 
How  can  we  improve  our  woodlands  so  that  they  will  approach  the 
well-managed  forests  of  Germany,  or  the  ideal  or  normal  goal  which 
we  are  setting  up  for  them?  The  following  answers  suggest  them- 
selves : 

1.  By   giving   adequate   protection.     Fire   is    the    chief   agency 

against  which  our  forests  need  protection. 

2.  By  procuring  wise  taxation. 

3.  By  prohibiting  unregulated  cutting. 

4.  By   securing   quick   reproduction   after   the   removal   of   the 

timber. 


16 

5.  By  establishing  a  complete  stock  of  valuable  trees  on  all 

forest  soils. 

6.  By  removing  undesirable  stock  and  replacing  it  with  a  better 

class  of  trees. 

7.  By  establishing  a  proper  proportion  and  a  suitable  distribu- 

tion of  age  classes. 

8.  By  making  every  part  of  the  forest  accessible  by  means  of 

roads,  lanes,  trails,  paths,  compartment  lines,  etc. 

9.  By  making  improvement  cuttings. 

10.  By  dividing  the  forest  into  working  units  (compartments) 
just  as  a  farmer  divides  his  farm  into  fields  and  the  fields 
into  patches. 

THE  FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY. 

The  original  forest  was  so  modified  by  the  activity  of  man,  or  man 
working  conjointly  with  natural  agencies,  that  the  source  of  our 
future  wood  supply  became  a  question  of  great  importance.  A  gen- 
eral survey  of  the  field  showed  that  we  were  consuming  wood  faster 
than  we  were  producing  it.  This  unbalanced  economic  condition 
due  to  the  unregulated  condition  of  our  forest  gave  birth  to  the  sub- 
ject of  forestry.  Man's  attitude  towards  the  forest  showed  that  he 
was  a  disturbing  agent.  Without  him  the  forest  of  Pennsylvania 
would  have  remained  practically  undisturbed,  indefinitely.  Hence 
it  might  follow  that  the  forest  thrives  best  where  there  are  no  people, 
and  consequently  no  forestry.  Further,  one  often  hears  the  state- 
ment: Formerly  we  had  no  forestry  and  plenty  of  wood;  now  we 
have  forestry  but  no  wood.  This  statement  does  not  prove  that  for- 
estry is  to  be  blamed  for  a  deficiency  in  our  wood  supply,  but  it 
does  prove  that  forestry  is  the  child  of  necessity.  This  child  of  nec- 
essity, which  is  at  present  just  in  its  formative  period,  could  never 
have  been  born  if  we  had  not  been  compelled  to  see  that  our  timber 
resources  were  rapidly  decreasing. 

The  word  forestry  to  many  may  be  new.  The  most  enlightened 
may  have  a  rather  vague  conception  of  its  exact  scope.  It  is  often 
identified  with  the  planting  of  individual  trees,  landscape  work,  and 
tree  surgery.  Forestry  should  be  regarded  as  the  rational  treatment 
of  our  woodlands  for  their  products.  The  kind  of  treatment  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  desire  of  the  owner.  The  ownership  may  be 
private  or  there  may  be  a  public  owner,  as  a  municipality,  a  state, 
or  a  nation.  The  desire  of  the  owner  may  be  to  supply  wood  ma- 
terial, to  retain  or  establish  a  protective  cover,  to  furnish  recreation 
grounds,  or  to  maintain  a  game  cover.  The  forests  which  are  man- 
aged for  the  purpose  of  producing  a  supply  of  woody  material  are 
known  as  production  forests  or  supply  forests,  while  those  which 


Fig.  5.     DENSE  STAND  OF  NORWAY  SPRUCE,   GERMANY. 

The  kind  of  forests  we  hope  to  develop.    Norway  Spruce  is  a  valuable  and  a  beautiful 

tree. 


Fig.  6.  CAREFULLY  MANAGED  FOREST. 

Attractive,    sanitary,    productive,    and   organized.     Good   roads  ramify   through   all 

its  parts. 


Fig.  7. 


FOREST  ACADEMY  STUDENTS  IDENTIFYING  TREES  IN 
WINTER. 


Fig.   8. 


FOREST  ACADEMY   STUDENTS   STUDYING  THE   GROWTH   OF 
TREES  IN  A  PLANTATION. 


Fig.  9.    FOREST  ACADEMY  STUDENTS  ESTIMATING  TIMBER. 


17 

are  retained  or  often  established  as  a  protective  cover  are  known  as 
protection  forests.  Protection  forests  aim  to  prevent  calamities 
like  destructive  floods,  excessive  erosion,  sand  shifts,  and  snow  shifts. 
Forests  managed  primarily  to  enhance  the  beauty  of  the  forests  and 
to  furnish  recreation  grounds  for  the  public  may  be  known  as  park 
forests.  Park  forests  should  always  be  accessible  to  the  public. 
Such  outing  grounds  will  not  only  be  a  means  of  preventing  many 
of  our  diseases  but  also  help  to  restore  to  health  those  who  are 
already  afflicted.  Forests  managed  by  the  owner  primarily  to  en- 
joy sport  are  known  as  luxury  forests. 

Forestry  aims  to  have  man  improve  upon  nature's  ways  of  doing 
things.  Nature  grew  forests  upon  areas  regardless  of  the  fitness 
of  these  areas  to  other  more  profitable  pursuits.  Both  the  thin,  rel- 
atively sterile  soils  of  the  mountains  and  the  deep,  fertile  soils  of  the 
valleys  were  covered  with  forests.  The  latter  are  far  more  valuable 
for  the  production  of  food  material  than  for  the  production  of  wood 
material.  Forestry  aims  to  develop  forests  on  forest  soil.  It  does 
not  attempt  to  encroach  on  agricultural  soil  but  aims  first  to  classify 
the  land  into  ploughland  and  woodland;  and  then  to  treat  the 
woodland  areas  so  that  they  will  yield  the  largest  quantity  of  high 
class  wood  material  in  the  shortest  time  at  the  least  expense  of  time 
and  money  and  to  give  to  mankind  as  many  other  natural  blessings 
as  possible.  The  economic  point  of  view  should  always  be  kept 
paramount.  The  forester's  forest  should  supply  more  fully  the  pres- 
ent and  prospective  human  wants  than  they  can  be  supplied  by  de- 
pending upon  nature's  uncertain  and  unregulated  performances. 

FORESTRY  IN  PENNSYLVANIA. 

Forestry  had  an  early  beginning  in  Pennsylvania.  As  early  as 
1681  William  Penn  in  his  Charter  of  Eights  stated  that  "In  clearing 
the  ground  care  should  be  taken  to  leave  one  acre  of  trees  for  every 
five  acres  cleared;  especially  to  preserve  the  oak  and  mulberries  for 
silk  and  shipping."  From  this  time  on  at  irregular  intervals  acts 
were  passed  by  the  legislature  protecting  the  woodlands  from  theft 
and  firing;  but  no  real,  constructive  work  in  forestry  was  done  until 
the  latter  part  of  the  19th  century. 

In  1855  F.  Andre  Michaux  left  a  legacy  of  $14,000  to  the  American 
Philosophical  Society  in  Philadelphia  which  became  available  in 
1870  for  forestry  instruction.  In  1877  Dr.  J.  T.  Rothrock,  Professor 
of  Botany  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  was  appointed  Michaux 
lecturer  on  Forestry,  in  which  capacity  he  served  until  1891.  At 
this  time  it  was  difficult  to  interest  the  public  in  forestry  and,  as  a 
consequence,  at  first,  the  lectures  delivered  by  Dr.  Rothrock  were 


18 

not  well  attended.     The  interest  in  forestry,  however,  grew  gradually 
and  cumulatively. 

In  June,  1886,  the  Pennsylvania  Forestry  Association  was  founded. 
It  has  always  been  and  is  still  one  of  the  best  and  most  constructive 
organizations  of  its  kind  in  America.  In  1888  Governor  Beaver 
appointed  a  Commission  on  Forestry,  which  was  the  first  commission 
of  its  kind  in  this  State.  It  presented  a  report  to  the  legislature  in 
1889.  The  reports  which  this  and  the  subsequent  commission  pre- 
sented to  the  legislature,  together  with  the  data  obtained  from  the 
tenth  census  (1880),  helped  to  stimulate  interest  in  forestry  on  the 
part  of  both  legislators  and  the  public.  In  1895  the  Division  of 
Forestry  was  create^  in  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Dr. 
J.  T.  Rothrock  was  appointed  Commissioner  of  Forestry.  He  served 
in  this  capacity  until  June  1,  1904,  when  he  resigned.  Hon.  Robert 
S.  Conklin,  the  present  incumbent,  succeeded  him  as  Commissioner 
of  Forestry.  Under  the  direction  of  these  able  men  the  forestry 
work  has  progressed  to  such  an  extent  in  less  than  two  decades,  that 
Pennsylvania  to-day  stands  in  the  front  rank  with  reference  to  the 
development  of  its  woodland  areas.  Many  constructive  acts  pertain- 
ing to  forestry  have  been  passed  by  the  legislature,  some  of  which 
have  served  as  models  for  other  states.  In  1901  the  Division  of 
Forestry  was  raised  to  a  Department  of  Forestry. 

In  1903,  by  a  special  act  of  the  legislature,  the  State  Forest  Acad- 
emy, at  Mont  Alto,  was  established.  Mont  Alto  is  a  small  village  in 
Franklin  county,  sixty  miles  southwest  of  Harrisburg  on  the  Cumber- 
land Valley  Railroad.  The  ground  occupied  by  the  school  buildings 
is  a  part  of  a  State  forest  which  affords  an  excellent  opportunity 
for  practical  instruction  and  an  accessible  field  for  experimentation 
equalled  by  few  if  any  forestry  schools.  Recently  one  of  the  leading 
forestry  educators  connected  with  an  American  University,  a  Ger- 
man by  birth,  in  a  public  address  said,  "The  Pennsylvania  State  Forest 
Academy  has  the  best  location  and  working  field  of  any  forestry 
school  in  the  world."  This  school  aims  to  train  young  men  in  prac- 
tical forestry  so  that  they  will  be  able  to  manage  the  State  forests. 
Sixty-four  men  have  been  graduated,  and  most  of  whom  are  still  in 
the  service  of  the  State.  In  addition  to  these  foresters  ninety-two 
rangers  are  also  employed.  A  printed  announcement  of  the  school 
is  available  for  free  distribution  and  will  be  sent  upon  request. 

The  State  authorized  the  purchase  of  woodland  areas  in  1897  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  State  forests.  To  date  (July  1,  1915) 
1,003,114  acres  have  been  acquired,  located  in  26  counties,  at  a  total 
cost  of  $2,284,587.90,  or  an  average  of  $2.27  per  acre.  This  area  is 
now  being  developed.  Over  5,000  miles  of  roads,  lanes  and  trails 
have  been  built,  opened,  or  repaired.  One  hundred  ninety-five  miles 
of  telephone  lines  have  been  built  and  numerous  fire  observation 


19 

towers  have  been  constructed.  The  Department  of  Forestry  aims  to 
disseminate  knowledge  concerning  forestry  to  the  public,  to  protect 
carefully  all  State  forests,  to  assist  in  the  protection  of  private  areas, 
and  make  accessible  for  management  and  utilization  all  State  forests 
as  rapidly  as  appropriations  by  the  legislature  will  permit.  Many 
large  areas  in  various  parts  of  the  State  are  devoid  of  any  valuable 
tree  growth.  Most  of  these  areas  are  capable  of  developing  useful 
forests.  In  order  to  have  them  developed  it  is  necessary  that  such 
areas  be  stocked  with  valuable  trees.  It  must  be  done  by  planting. 
About  6,000  acres  have  already  been  planted  to  trees  in  this  State, 
which  required  a  total  of  11,970,500  seedlings.  In  order  to  produce 
these  seedlings  and  to  insure  a  future  supply  4  large  forest  nurseries 
and  22  small  ones  have  been  established.  Many  other  benefits  are  de- 
rived from  the  forests.  They  serve  as  recreation  grounds  to  the 
public  who  seek  their  midst  to  regain  or  maintain  health.  Carefully 
managed  forests  regulate  stream  flow  and  are  also  the  sources  from 
which  cities  and  towns  obtain  an  excellent  supply  of  unpolluted 
water.  They  furnish  local  labor,  and,  through  permits,  suitable 
camp  sites  to  campers,  hunters,  and  fishermen.  The  sale  of  material 
from  the  State  forests  has  already  yielded  over  $96,600  which  will 
be  set  aside  for  "The  State  School  Fund  of  Pennsylvania." 

THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  FOREST. 

Every  region  and,  often,  even  every  small  locality  has  its  peculiar 
kind  of  forest.  The  composition  of  the  forests  along  streams,  on 
slopes,  and  upon  mountain  tops  usually  shows  great  differences.  The 
climatic  factors  and  physiographic  features  of  a  region  influence  the 
composition  of  the  forest  very  much.  The  more  varied  the  factors 
of  the  habitat  are,  the  more  varied  the  composition  of  the  forest  usu- 
ally is.  Upon  the  same  mountain  slope  one  can  often  find  three  and 
sometimes  more  zones  of  trees.  Each  zone  is  composed  of  different 
species  or  groups  of  species,  which  groups  vary  not  only  in  composi- 
tion, but  also  in  form,  density,  and  thriftiness. 

The  forester  seldom  considers  trees  raised  in  isolated  positions, 
but  rather  concerns  himself  with  trees  raised  in  masses  or  stands. 
Such  masses  of  trees,  irrespective  of  their  kind,  size,  density,  form, 
number,  or  value  are  known  as  woodlands.  Woodlands  may  be  com- 
posed of  a  single  species  or  of  two  or  more  species.  If  one  species 
composes  ninety  per  cent,  or  more  of  the  total  stand  it  is  known  as 
a  pure  stand  and  if  the  stand  is  composed  of  two  or  more  species 
none  of  which  forms  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  total  stand  it  is  known 
as  a  mixed  stand.  Woodlands  are  rarely  quite  pure.  A  slight  ad- 
mixture of  some  species  is  usually  present.  The  forests  of  Pennsyl- 


20 

vania  are  decidedly  mixed  in  their  composition.  The  conifers  are 
found  oftener  in  pure  stands  than  the  broad-leaved  species.  Since 
the  forests  of  this  State  are  composed  largely  of  hardwood  species  it 
is  rather  unusual  to  find  pure  stands.  Occasionally  one  may  find 
small  pure  stands  of  such  species  as  Pitch  Pine,  White  Pine,  or  Bed 
Cedar  and  rather  extensive  ones  of  Chestnut. 

About  125  species  of  trees  are  native  to  the  State  of  Pennsylvania 
but  not  more  than  25  species  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  deserve 
to  be  developed  in  our  future  forests.  A  large  proportion  of  our 
native  trees  is  found  as  undergrowth.  They  form  dense  and  some- 
times almost  impenetrable  thickets.  This  dense  and  complex  struc- 
ture of  our  underwood  aids  considerably  in  increasing  the  number 
of  participants  in  our  forests.  Dense  and  tall  undergrowth  tends  to 
protect  the  soil  from  erosion,  to  conserve  the  fertility  of  the  soil, 
and  to  afford  shelter  to  birds  which  prey  upon  the  insect  enemies 
of  the  forest;  but  it  may  also  impede  the  utilization  of  forest  pro- 
ducts and  make  the  tending  of  the  forest  more  difficult. 

The  tendency  of  forestry  is  to  eliminate  the  undesirable  species. 
We  should  eliminate  cautiously  since  the  despised  species  of  to-day 
may  be'  prized  to-morrow.  If  this  process  of  elimination  is  devel- 
oped on  an  intensive  scale,  it  means  a  reduction  in  the  number  of 
species  and,  in  extreme  cases,  leaves  only  one  species,  i.  e.  a  pure 
stand.  This  is  especially  true  where  a  forester  aims  to  establish  a 
stand  by  artificial  seeding  or  planting.  He  is  apt  to  choose  a  species, 
which  he  thinks  will  give  the  highest  returns.  If  he  selects  the 
proper  species  and  it  is  not  injured  during  its  development  he  may 
possibly  obtain  satisfactory  results.  Before  establishing  stands  one 
should  consider  the  subjoined  advantages  of  pure  and  mixed  stands. 
The  principal  advantages  of  pure  stands  are: — 

1.  Pure  stands  are  easier  and  cheaper  to  establish. 

2.  Pure  stands  are  easier  to  tend  and  manage. 
The  principal  advantages  of  mixed  stands  are: — 

1.  Mixed  stands  utilize  the  available  plant  food  in  the  soil  and 
air  more  fully.     Close  utilization  of  the  factors  of  the  habitat 
and  keen  competition  by  every  forest  tree  upon  its  neighbor 
are  requisites  for  optimum  quantity  and  quality  production. 

2.  The  forester  can  meet  the  demands  of  the  market  better  with 

a  few  species  than  with  one  species. 

3.  A  larger  number  of  trees  per  unit  of  area  is  usually  found  in 
a  mixed  stand  than  in  a  pure  stand. 

4.  Many  species  are  less  subject  to  damage  by  wind,  frost,  fire, 
fungi,  and  insects,  in  mixture  than  when  grown  pure. 

5.  Trees  usually  develop  a  better  form  if  mixed  properly  than  if 
grown  pure. 

6.  Mixed  stands  are  more  attractive  than  pure  stands. 


21 

A  great  many  pure  stands  may  be  seen  in  the  forests  of  Germany. 
Some  of  them  were  established  over  100  years  ago  and  are  now  ready 
to  be  cut.  After  more  than  a  century  of  experience  in  planting,  the 
German  foresters  are  abandoning  the  policy  of  establishing  pure 
stands  and  are  advocating  mixed  forests.  Mixed  forests  may  con- 
sist of  a  mixture  by  single  trees  or  of  a  mixture  by  groups.  The  mix- 
ture may  be  temporary  or  permanent,  even-aged  or  uneven-aged. 

We  should  aim  to  improve  the  composition  of  our  forests  by  re- 
ducing the  percentage  of  inferior  species  and  increasing  that  of 
the  more  valuable  ones.  The  present  cover  types  which  consist  of 
many  despised,  some  neutral,  and  a  few  prized  species,  should  be 
transformed  into  the  future  management  types  which  will  be  charac- 
terized by  a  simpler  but  superior  composition. 

THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  FOREST. 

As  rapidly  as  the  mature  forests  on  absolute  forest  soil  are  re- 
moved they  sould  be  succeeded  by  young  forests.  These  new  forests 
which  follow  in  the  wake  of  those  removed  may  be  established  by  one 
or  by  a  combination  of  the  following  methods: — (1)  Natural,  where 
nature,  aided  to  a  limited  extent  by  man,  sows  seeds  and  produces 
sprouts.  (2)  Artificial,  where  man  sows  the  seeds  or  plants  the 
seedlings.  The  former  is  usually  spoken  of  as  natural  regeneration 
and  the  latter  as  artificial  regeneration.  In  both  methods  nature 
does  most  of  the  work;  but  man  helps  nature  more  in  the  artificial 
method  than  in  the  natural  method.  Nature  working  through  many 
centuries  produced  the  original  forest.  We  cannot  wait  for  nature 
to  produce  another  original  forest  on  our  forest  soils.  It  will  take 
too  long.  We  may  assist  nature  and  attempt  even  to  improve  upon 
its  way  of  doing  things;  but  we  must  be  careful  that  we  do  not  de- 
viate too  far  from  its  methods  for  fear  of  being  punished. 

In  the  case  of  artificial  regeneration  it  is  necessary  to  collect  seeds 
from  desirable  trees.  These  collected  seeds  may  be  sown  imme- 
diately or  stored.  If  stored,  they  must  be  protected  from  such  ani- 
mals as  mice,  squirrels,  and  birds,  and  from  drought.  The  seeds 
may  be  placed  between  layers  of  sand  to  prevent  drying  out.  Those 
seeds  which  are  sown  immediately  may  be  sown  directly  upon  the 
area  where  they  are  expected  to  germinate  and  establish  themselves 
or  they  may  be  sown  in  beds  in  a  nursery  where  they  in  time  develop 
into  seedlings.  Direct  sowing  may  be  in  the  form  of  broadcasting, 
where  the  seeds  are  scattered  rather  uniformly  over  the  area  or  spot 
planting,  and  where  only  isolated  or  scattered  spots,  often  regularly 
spaced,  are  sown  with  seeds. 

The  nurseries  in  which  the  seeds  are  sown  may  be  permanent  and 
located  in  the  open,  or  temporary  and  located  in  the  forest  under  the 


22 

shelter  of  trees.    The  nursery  is  divided  into  a  great  number  of  beds 
which  are  usually  about  twenty-five  feet  long  and  four  feet  wide. 
The  seeds  may  be  sown  in  these  beds  in  spring  or  fall,  either  by 
sowing  them  broadcast  or  in  rills.     Here  the  seeds  germinate  and 
after  an  incubation  period  of  usually  less  than  a  month,  but  occa- 
sionally extending  over  a  year,  they  appear  above  the  ground.     The 
germination  can  sometimes  be  stimulated  by  soaking  the  seeds  in 
water  before  planting.    These  young  tender  plants  like  children  suc- 
cumb very  readily  to  adverse  conditions.     Consequently  they  must 
receive  careful  treatment  and  adequate  protection  while  they  remain 
in  the  nursery.     They  must  receive  protection  from  the  intense  sun, 
excessive  moisture,  drought,  weeds,  fungi,  and  animals.     The  plants 
which  develop  from  the  sown  seed  may  remain  for  one,  two,  or  three 
years  in  the  nursery.     Those  plants  which  remain  for  more  than  one 
year  may  be  kept  in  the  same  place  where  the  seeds  which  produced 
them  were  sown.     If  too  dense  they  must  be  lifted  and  planted  in 
another  place  where  they  will  have  more  room.     This  process  of  lift- 
ing the  seedlings  and  planting  them  again  is  known  as  transplanting, 
and  the  resulting  plants  are  transplants.    Transplanting  usually 
produces  better  plants  because  they  are  stockier  and  better  prepared 
for  the  shock  they  will  receive  when  planted  in  the  forest.     Species 
like.  White  Pine,  Red  Pine,  and  Norway  Spruce  are  usually  left  in 
the  nursery  for  two  or  three  years  and  then  transplanted  while  other 
species  like  Ash,  Walnut,  and  Oak  are  left  in  the  nursery  only  one 
year. 

The  seedlings  planted  in  the  forest  are  usually  raised  in  nurseries 
but  occasionally  they  may  be  taken  from  the  forest  floor  where  na- 
ture often  produces  them  abundantly.  The  cost  of  raising  plants  in 
the  nurseries  varies  with  the  species,  cost  and  quality  of  the  seeds, 
and  the  length  of  time  left  in  the  nursery,  but  is  usually  from  about 
|2.50  to  $4.00  per  thousand.  The  source,  method  of  collection,  pre- 
paration, and"  storage  of  the  seeds  have  a  marked  influence  on  the 
quality  of  the  resulting  plants.  The  plants,  taken  from  the  nursery 
or  lifted  in  the  forest,  are  usually  planted  in  the  forest  about  4x4 
or  5x5  feet  apart.  This  requires  from  about  1,700  to  2,725  trees 
per  acre.  The  total  cost  of  planting  an  acre  of  cleared  land  to  forest 
trees,  including  cost  of  plants,  is  about  $12.  In  individual  cases 
the  cost  may  exceed  this  figure  and  again  it  may  be  lower.  This  ar- 
tificial method  of  regeneration  is  generally  used  where  forests  have 
been  clear-cut  or  where  openings  are  to  be  reforested.  It  is  also  used 
for  underplanting  where  a  better  humus  covering  is  desirable.  In 
Europe,  especially  in  Germany,  this  method  was  used  extensively 
(luring  the  last  century  as  may  be  seen  in  the  many  even-aged  forests 
found  there  at  the  present  time.  During  the  last  decade  a  reaction 
has  been  setting  in,  based  on  scientific  investigations.  Many  of  the 


Fig.  13.    DEVELOPMENT  OF  WHITE  PINE  SEEDS. 

Seedlings  taken  from  nursery  May,  1914,  after  growth  had  started.  From  left  to 
right:  Four  seeds;  six  seedlings  from  fall-sown  seeds  showing  3  stages  of 
development  directly  after  breaking  through  the  ground;  two  1-year  old  seed- 
lings ;  two  2-year  old  seedlings . 


Fig    14.     STUDENTS  PLANTING  TREES. 

From  1,200  to  2,750  trees  are  planted  per  acre.     A  crew  of  20  men  can  plant  20,000 
trees  per  day  if  conditions  are  favorable. 


Fig.  15.     NATURAL  REGENERATION  OF  THE  FOREST. 
Norway   Spruce  before  seeding  cutting.    Opening   the  leaf-canopy  stimulates  seed 

production . 


Fig.   16.     NATURAL  REGENERATION  OF  THE  FOREST 
Norway  Spruce  after  seeding  cutting.     Regeneration  following  regulated  seed  pro- 
duction. 


Fig.  17.  NATURAL  REGENERATION  OF  THE  FOREST. 

Large  Oak  seed  tree  with  its  offspring. 


Fig.  18.  NATURAL  REGENERATION  OF  THE  FOREST. 

An  opening  being  filled  by  a  dense  growth  of  White  Pine,  Tulip,  and  Hemlock  seed- 
lings, from  seed  scattered  by  bordering  large  trees. 


Fig.  19.     PLANTATION  OF  WHITE  PINP]. 

Six  years  old  from  seed,  about  2,000  trees,  2-3  feet  high,   per  acre. 


Fis.  20.     PLANTATION  OF  WHITE  PINE 
.leven  years  old  from  seed,  about  2,500  trees,  5-12  feet  high,  per  acre. 


23 

forests  which  were  established  artificially  are  now  reaching  maturity. 
Disadvantages  of  this  method  are  becoming  more  evident  and  the 
foresters  are  gradually  substituting  the  natural  method  for  the  ar- 
tificial. 

The  natural  regeneration  of  forests  may  take  place  in  two  ways: 
(1)  By  coppice  and  (2)  by  seed.  By  coppice  is  meant  the  shoots 
which  spring  up  from  the  stump  when  the  tree  is  cut  (Figs.  23,  24, 
69,  79)  and  the  suckers  which  spring  up  from  the  roots.  Coppicing 
is  a  rather  important  method  of  reproduction  in  Pennsylvania  since 
some  of  our  most  valuable  species,  like  Chestnut,  Ash,  and  Oak  re- 
produce readily  by  this  method.  Natural  seed  regeneration  leaves 
most  of  the  work  to  nature.  Man  attempts  to  hasten  it  somewhat  by 
regulated  cutting  in  the  stand  and  by  wounding  the  soil  so  that  the 
seeds  will  find  a  favorable  mineral  soil  upon  which  to  germinate. 
The  trees  which  produce  the  seeds  may  be  scattered  singly,  or  occur 
in  groups,  in  strips,  or  in  opened  stands.  These  trees  are  known 
as  seed  trees  or  mother  trees.  Some  form  of  natural  regeneration 
must  be  used  in  protection  forests,  is  advisable  for  game  and  park 
forests,  and  applicable  to  the  forests  which  are  managed  for  the 
production  of  wood.  In  some  cases  it  is  advisable  to  begin  with 
natural  regeneration  and  then  fill  in  artificially  all  places  which 
are  not  stocked  with  trees. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OP  THE  FOREST. 

The  raising  of  some  farm  crops  and  the  raising  of  a  wood  crop  have 
many  points  in  common.  A  farmer  after  planting  his  field  to  corn 
in  spring  does  not  leave  it  to  nature  to  develop  and  mature,  but  he 
cultivates  it  and  sometimes  even  cuts  out  undesirable  sprouts  called 
suckers,  knowing  that  careful  tending  will  result  in  a  larger  yield. 
Likewise  the  forester  is  not  satisfied  in  establishing  a  forest  but  he 
also  aims  to  develop  or  tend  it  so  that  it  will  yield  a  large  and  val- 
uable crop. 

The  method  of  developing  a  forest  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the 
forest  and  the  desire  of  the  owner.  The  forest  may  have  been  es- 
tablished by  nature  and  even  partly  developed  by  it  or  it  may  have 
been  established  by  man.  The  forests  established  and  developed  by 
nature  without  the  aid  of  man  are  usually  in  a  rather  unsanitary, 
unattractive,  unproductive,  and  unregulated  condition.  Under  such 
conditions  it  is  necessary  for  man  to  transform  these  into  forests 
which  are  clean,  attractive,  productive,  and  which  show  evidence  of 
proper  regulation  on  every  hand.  The  forests  which  man  establishes 
usually  start  out  with  2,000  to  20,000  or  even  50,000  seedlings  to 
the  acre,  depending  upon  the  method  of  establishment.  If  artificial 
methods  of  regeneration  are  used  about  2,500  seedlings  per  acre  are 


24 

required  but  where  natural  regeneration  is  used  one  may  find  20,000 
or  even  100,000  seedlings  per  acre.  If  we  go  into  a  mature  forest 
stand  and  count  the  trees  per  acre  we  will  find  probably  150,  or  some- 
times 250,  and  occasionally  400 ;  hence,  we  must  conclude  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  trees  which  start  out  cannot  survive.  Two  ques- 
tions suggest  themselves:  What  happens  with  the  large  number 
of  trees  which  cannot  mature?  Why  is  it  necessary  to  plant  so  many 
when  only  a  small  number  can  mature  ?  If  one  inspects  a  plantation 
of  trees  a  few  years  after  it  was  established  he  will  be  able  to  note  a 
difference  among  the  trees.  Some  are  thrifty,  which  is  shown  by 
their  rapid  growth,  others  are  average,  while  still  others  show  no 
signs  of  growth  whatever  or  may  have  died.  If  one  returns  ten  years 
later  this  condition  is  still  more  pronounced.  By  this  time  they 
will  have  grown  to  such  dimensions  that  their  branches  are  beginning 
to  interlace.  A  struggle  has  started  between  them.  There  is  no 
longer  sufficient  space  for  all  of  them.  They  must  battle  with  each 
other  for  light  and  food.  Some  will  conquer  and  be  known  as  domin- 
ant trees,  while  others  will  just  about  hold  their  own  and  be  known 
as  intermediate  trees,  while  still  others  will  be  conquered  and  be 
known  as  suppressed  or  dead  trees.  This  struggle  for  existence  is 
found  in  all  places  where  trees  grow  in  the  form  of  a  forest,  and  re- 
sults in  the  elimination  of  the  weaker  specimens.  At  the  same 
time  it  gives  such  drastic  discipline  to  the  dominant  ones  that 
they  will  produce  a  much  higher  grade  of  wood.  Trees  grown  in 
dense  stands  are  usually  free  from  lateral  branches  for  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  ground  and  as  a  consequence  the  logs  cut  from 
them  will  be  relatively  free  from  knots;  while  trees  grown  in  open 
stands  or  in  open  situations  bear  crowns  which  often  reach  almost  to 
the  ground  and  produce  numerous  knots.  Such  trees  as  the  latter, 
consequently,  yield  an  inferior  grade  of  wood. 

In  developing  forests  the  owner  or  forester  in  charge  should  aim 
to  maintain  a  proper  number  of  trees  per  acre  and  to  treat  them 
so  that  they  will  not  only  yield  a  large  quantity  but  also  a  good 
quality  of  wood.  He  should  not  aim  to  differ  from  nature's  ways 
of  doing  things  but  improve  on  them.  In  order  to  improve  the  for- 
est it  is  necessary  that  the  forester  carry  on  certain  operations  in 
the  immature  stand  which  aim  to  improve  the  composition  of  the 
stand  and  the  form  of  the  individual  trees.  He  should  also  aim  to 
increase  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  individual  trees  and  as  a  result 
increase  the  yield  in  volume  and  value  of  the  final  product.  The 
principal  operations  which  one  must  carry  out  in  order  to  realize 
the  above  objects  are:  Cleanings,  Liberation  Cuttings,  Thinnings, 
Damage  Cuttings,  Pruning,  Weeding,  and  Underplanting. 

Cleanings  are  cutting  operations  in  young  rather  even-aged  stands 
which  remove  undesirable  trees  with  little  prospective  value,  and 


Fig    23.     THINNED  CHESTNUT  STAND. 

About  35  years  old.    Approximately  280  trees  over  4  inches  in  diameter,  breast  high, 
still  standing.     Eight  cords  of  wood  per  acre  were  removed. 


AK 

22  years 


24.  THINNED  CHESTNUT  STAND 


Fig.  25.     WHITE  PINE  STAND  BEFORE  AND  DURING  PRUNING. 


Fig.  26.     SAME  STAND  AS  FIG.  25,  10  YEARS  AFTER  PRUNING 


Fig    27      OIL  PIPE  LINE  AS  A  FIRE  AND  SUBDIVISION  LINE. 
A  base  from  which  to  fight  fires.     An  excellent  subdivision  line. 


Fig.  28.    COMPARTMENT  LINE  IN  A  YOUNG  CHESTNUT  FOREST.  . 
Such  lines  afford  a  base  for  controlling  fires,  and  make  the  forest  accessible. 


25 

favor  other  species  with  a  good  prospective  value.  These  latter  may 
have  been  overtopped  by  the  undesirable  ones. 

Liberation  Cuttings  are  operations  in  immature  stands  in  which 
the  main  crop  of  trees  is  overtopped  by  scattered  older  trees  with 
very  wide-spreading  crowns.  These  older  trees  with  present  but 
little  prospective  value  retard  the  development  of  a  great  number  of 
younger  trees  with  good  prospective  value.  The  removal  of  the 
larger  trees  is  known  as  a  Liberation  Cutting. 

Thinnings  are  cutting  operations  in  immature  stands  for  the  pur- 
pose of  accelerating  the  growth  of  individual  trees  and,  as  a  con- 
sequence, increasing  the  total  yield  and  improving  the  quality  of  the 
product.  Thinnings  result  not  only  in  a  larger  quantity  and  quality 
increment  but  aim  to  improve  the  appearance  and  health  of  the  forest. 
They  decrease  the  danger  from  fire  since  a  large  amount  of  inflam- 
mable debris  is  removed.  If  thinnings  are  conducted  properly  the 
remaining  trees  are  usually  more  windfirm.  Thinnings  also  enable 
one  to  get  returns  upon  a  forest  investment  without  waiting  until  the 
crop  is  finally  harvested.  Today,  under  our  crude  method  of  regu- 
lating the  returns  from  our  forests,  the  thinnings  or  intermediate 
yield  play  a  minor  role,  while  the  final  yield  comprises  practically 
the  total  yield ;  but  as  our  methods  are  developed  and  perfected,  the 
intermediate  yields  will  comprise  as  in  the  intensively  managed  for- 
ests of  Germany,  25%,  and  later,  50%  of  the  total  yield.  All  forest 
owners  should  aim  to  improve  their  forest  stands  by  thinning  them 
properly  so  that  they  will  become  more  attractive,  more  sanitary, 
and  more  productive.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  thinning  early, 
regularly,  and  with  increasing  intensity,  but  always  cautiously,  so 
that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  will  be  conserved  and  all  available  food 
properly  utilized. 

Damage  Cuttings  comprise  operations  which  remove  all  damaged 
material  from  the  forest.  The  damage  may  be  caused  by  wind,  light- 
ning, snow,  insects,  fungi,  fire,  or  any  of  the  many  other  agents  which 
operate  in  the  forest.  Damage  cuttings  should  be  made  as  soon  as 
possible  after  the  damage  is  done  not  only  in  order  to  utilize  the  ma- 
terial before  it  depreciates  too  much  in  value,  but  also  to  prevent 
the  spread  of  such  destructive  agents  as  insects  and  fungi. 

Pruning  is  an  expensive  operation  and  consists  mainly  in  cutting 
off  the  lower  branches  of  trees  where  they  were  not  pruned  natur- 
ally, in  order  to  produce  stems  with  as  few  knots  as  possible  and  at 
the  same  time  increase  the  beauty  of  the  stand. 

Underplanting  is  an  intensive  cultural  operation  which  is  practiced 
only  under  systems  of  intensive  management  of  the  forest.  It  may 
aim  to  conserve  or  even  improve  the  soil  or  to  establish  advance 
reproduction.  The  aesthetic  value  of  underplanting  is  also  a  valu- 
able asset  in  developing  our  forest. 


26 

Environmental  influences  and  inherent  tendencies  are  factors  which 
are  constantly  discussed  in  connection  with  the  development  of  our 
youth  into  useful  men  and  women.  These  same  factors  should  be 
considered  in  developing  the  young  seedlings  of  the  present  forest 
into  the  veterans  of  the  future. 

THE  PROTECTION  OF  THE  FOREST. 

The  protection  of  the  forest  surpasses  in  importance  all  other  for- 
est activities  during  the  early  or  formative  period  of  forestry  in  any 
country.  Forest  protection  is  not  only  the  oldest  but  also  the  most 
necessary  branch  of  forestry.  Many  and  varied  are  the  destructive 
agents  at  work  in  the  forest  or  upon  the  products  derived  from  it. 
The  destructive  work  of  fire  is  very  evident  while  that  of  fungi  is 
often  hidden.  One  cannot  help  but  comprehend  tho  destructive  work 
of  a  forest  fire  which  may  sweep  over  an  entire  mountain,  kill  every 
trace  of  tree  growth,  and,  in  addition,  destroy  buildings  and  oc- 
casionally human  lives;  but  few  even  apprehend  the  extent  of  damage 
by  such  agents  as  fungi  which  often  cause  the  decay  of  the  entire 
interior  of  a  tree  without  giving  any  external  evidence  of  their  pres- 
ence. In  order  to  give  adequate  protection  to  our  forests,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  know  the  dangers  which  threaten  them.  We  must  also 
know  how  to  offset  attack  by  employing  preventive  and  remedial 
measures.  The  principal  dangers  which  threaten  the  forest  and 
against  which  man  must  protect  it  may  be  grouped  as  follows: — 1. 
Damage  from  human  agencies.  2.  Damage  from  organic  agencies. 
3.  Damage  from  inorganic  agencies. 

Man's  disturbing  influence  in  the  forest  can  be  comprehended  in 
part  when  one  compares  our  present  forests  with  those  of  the  past. 
Primitive  man  had  few  wants,  but  as  his  civilization  progressed  his 
wants  multiplied  and  his  destructive  tendencies  became  more  ap- 
parent. The  early  settler  found  it  necessary  to  destroy  valuable 
forests  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  home  and  for  opening  agri- 
cultural and  grazing  lands.  He  had  no  alternative  then,  but  now 
conditions  have  changed.  He  is  just  at  the  beginning  of  forest  ap- 
preciation. He  must  introduce  system  and  substitute  conservative 
forestry  for  destructive  lumbering,  which  latter  has  always  been 
characterized  by  profligate  exploitation  and  wanton  waste. 

Man  is  directly  or  indirectly  responsible  for  most  forest  fires, 
since  they  usually  originate  through  his  carelessness  or  malicious- 
ness. Lightning  is  responsible  for  a  very  small  percentage.  Of  all 
the  enemies  of  the  forest  none  is  so  destructive  as  fire.  A  single  fire 
may  burn  over  a  few  acres  only  or  it  may  burn  over  thousands  of 
acres  in  a  single  day.  It  not  only  destroys  present  but  prospective 
value,  since  it  consumes  or  kills  mature  trees  and  the  young  seed- 


Fig.  29.  HEMLOCK  TRUNK  WITH 
FRUITING  BODIES  OF  A  FUN- 
GUS. 


Fig.  30.  BLACK  BIRCH  TRUNK  AT- 
TACKED BY  TWO  DIFFERENT 
SPECIES  OF  FUNGI. 


Fig.  31.    CHESTNUT  POST  ATTACKED  BY  BROWN  ROT  (POLYPORUS 

SULPHUREUS). 

Some  fungi  attack  only  living  wood,  ethers  attack  only  dead  wood. 


Fig.  32.    WHITE  OAK  AND  PINE  LOGS  ATTACKED  BY  FUNGI 

and  fungous  attack 


f 


Fig.  33.    PRESIDENT  JAMES  BUCHANAN'S  BIRTHPLACE. 
Buchanan  State  Forest,  Stony  Batter,  near  Mercersburg,  Franklin  County, 
midal  rough  stone  monument.     Norway  Spruce  in  the  foreground. 


Pyra- 


27 

lings  and  saplings  which  would  have  produced  the  forest  of  the  fu- 
ture. In  the  years  1907,  1908  and  1909,  2,455  fires  occurred  in  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  and  burned  over  484,987  acres.  The  esti- 
mated amount  of  damage  was  almost  $1,000,000.  It  is  also  esti- 
mated that  the  average  annual  direct  loss  from  forest  fires  within 
Pennsylvania  is  $500,000. 

Three  kinds  of  forest  fires  are  usually  recognized:  Surface  fires, 
which  burn  the  surface  layer  of  leaves,  grass,  twigs,  and  some  trees; 
Ground  fires,  which  burn  through  soils  with  abundant  vegetable  ma- 
terial; and  Crown  fires,  which  burn  through  the  crowns  of  trees. 

Many  fires  can  be  prevented  by  educating  the  people  concerning 
the  real  value  and  significance  of  the  forests.  Vigilant  patrol  dur- 
ing the  danger  season,  the  construction  of  fire- towers,  telephone  lines, 
roads,  fire-lanes,  compartment  lines,  and  the  proper  disposal  of  com- 
bustible material,  help  to  minimize  the  fire  danger. 

The  damage  which  man  does  in  the  forest  is  very  noticeable  to  his 
fellowman,  while  that  done  by  other  agents  often  goes  unnoticed. 
Due  to  the  development  of  our  biological  sciences  in  the  recent  past 
we  are  beginning  to  appreciate  the  extent  of  the  damage  done  by 
such  agents  as  insects  and  fungi. 

The  organic  agencies  which  damage  the  forest  are  plants  or  ani- 
mals. The  principal  types  of  plants  which  do  damage  to  the  forest 
or  to  the  products  of  the  forest  are  parasitic  flowering  plants,  as  the 
mistletoe,  and  fungi  which  cause  the  decay  of  wood.  The  extent  of 
damage  which  fungi  do  to  trees  as  well  as  construction  timber  is 
usually  underrated.  They  may  be  found  upon  living  or  dead  trees, 
stumps,  logs,  railroad  ties,  and  construction  timber  in  bridges, 
houses  and  barns  (Figs.  29-32).  The  Chestnut  Bark  Disease  is  an 
example  of  a  parasitic  fungous  disease  which  attacks  the  Chestnut 
tree,  doing  enormous  damage. 

Many  different  kinds  of  animals  do  damage  to  the  forest.  Domes- 
tic animals,  as  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  hogs,  and  wild  vertebrates, 
as  deer,  rabbits,  squirrels,  mice,  and  beavers,  are  among  the  most  im- 
portant damaging  agents. 

Next  to  fire,  insects  are  the  most  destructive  enemies  of  the  forest. 
They  may  infest  young  seedlings  in  the  nursery,  the  fruit  or  seeds, 
the  twigs,  the  cambial  bark,  and  the  wood.  They  also  do  consider- 
able damage  by  attacking  the  leaves.  Complete  defoliation  is  not 
uncommon. 

The  damage  from  inorganic  agents  may  be  in  the  form  of  wind- 
fall, wind-break,  snow-break,  excessive  cold,  excessive  heat,  shifting- 
sands,  erosion,  floods,  and  noxious  gases. 

Proper  protective  measures  can  sometimes  be  carried  out  success- 
fully by  the  individual,  but  in  other  cases  the  co-operation  of  the 
nation,  state,  or  municipality  may  be  required.  Organizations  or 


28 

establishments  for  carrying  out  protective  measures  are  also  re- 
quired where  large  areas  are  to  be  protected.  On  July  1,  1914,  there 
were  employed  in  Pennsylvania  56  Foresters  and  91  Forest  Kangers 
to  look  after  the  998,773  acres  of  forest  land  which  the  State  owns. 
Most  of  the  foresters  employed  fey  the  State  received  their  training 
at  the  State  Forest  Academy.  By  developing  the  forest  fire  organiza- 
tion in  Pennsylvania,  forest  fires  will  be  rare  events,  as  in  the  man- 
aged forests  of  Europe,  and  if  they  do  break  out  will  cause  relatively 
little  damage. 


THE  VALUE   OF  FORESTS. 

Prior  to  the  time  that  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  closed  the 
route  to  the  Orient,  the  Atlantic  was  regarded  the  world's  back 
door.  Columbus,  a  mere  sea  captain,  to  his  own  surprise,  discovered 
a  land  which,  as  the  old  voyagers  related,  no  one  approached  without 
appreciating  the  beauty  of  the  forest.  Those  old  voyagers  appreciated 
the  beauty  of  the  forests  but  not  their  prospective  value.  The  forests 
at  first  had  a  negative  value.  They  were  something  which  must  be 
conquered.  Their  removal  was  necessary  for  the  establishment  of 
homes  and  the  opening  of  agricultural  lands.  Thousands  of  acres  of 
the  best  forests  were  simply  burned  to  get  rid  of  them.  They  were 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  development. 

Gradually  as  our  forest  acreage  decreased,  as  our  population  in- 
creased, and  as  the  demand  for  wood  goods  multiplied,  the  forests  be- 
came not  only  objects  of  interest  and  beauty,  but  also  of  value. 
After  four  centuries  of  rapid  development  we  are  just  beginning  to 
comprehend  the  real  importance  of  our  forests.  They  supply  us 
with  wood  which  is  the  most  indispensable  and  universally  used 
product  of  nature.  Wood  as  a  necessity  or  a  luxury  is  used  in  our 
various  activities  from  the  cradle  to  the  coffin.  Many  of  our  houses 
are  built,  finished,  and  heated  with  wood.  Most  of  the  paper  upon 
which  we  write  and  upon  which  our  books  are  printed  is  made  of 
wood. 

The  forests  supply  us  not  only  with  wood  but  with  many  minor 
products  like  maple  sugar,  tanning  materials,  naval  stores,  charcoal, 
wood  alcohol,  etc.  Artificial  silk  and  even  whole  suits  of  clothing 
have  been  made  from  wood.  In  addition,  the  forests  furnish  leaves 
for  stable  litter,  pasturage  for  cattle,  pannage  for  swine,  and  great 
quantities  of  nuts  which  are  used  as  food  by  man.  Pasturage  was 
formerly  carried  on  more  extensively  than  at  present.  It  may  be  a 
legitimate  industry  if  it  pays  and  if  it  is  so  directed  that  the  "young 
seedlings  in  the  forest,  which  will  produce  our  future  forests,  are 
not  eaten  or  injured.  As  a  rule,  grazing  should  not  be  permitted  in 


29 

young  forests  where  the  shoots  are  still  tender  and  readily  eaten  by 
animals,  nor  where  the  grazing  animals  may  tramp  out  the  seed- 
lings. 

The  original  forest  may  be  regarded  a  great  reservoir  of  wealth 
filled  by  nature  working  through  many  centuries,  and  exploited  by 
man  either  for  its  products  or  to  establish  in  its  place  a  more  neces- 
sary industry.  The  present  forest  on  the  other  hand  may  be  rep- 
resented by  a  much  smaller  reservoir  only  partly  filled,  and  with 
material  which  is  inferior  not  only  to  that  found  in  the  original 
forest  but  also  far  inferior  to  that  which  we  hope  to  develop  in  the 
future  forest.  The  present  forest  if  properly  managed,  which  im- 
plies improvement,  is  capable  of  producing  continuously  a  large 
quantity  of  major  and  minor  forest  products  representing  an  enor- 
mous value.  In  addition  to  the  usual  monetary  value  of  forests  we 
should  also  consider  their  value  as  soil  formers,  soil  fixers,  soil  im- 
provers, preventers  of  floods,  sanitary  agents,  suppliers  of  natural 
blessings,  and  beautifiers  of  the  earth. 

THE  VALUE  OP  TREES. 

Trees  are  among  the  commonest  and  most  conspicuous  objects  of 
nature.  They  vary  considerably  depending  upon  their  kind,  their 
environment,  and  the  artificial  treatment  which  they  may  have  re- 
ceived during  their  development.  The  trees  which  surrounded  the 
simple  home  of  the  early  pioneer  differed  very  much  from  those 
which  adorn  the  grounds  of  some  of  our  wealthy  citizens  today, 
showing  that  nature,  unaided  by  man  produces  trees  in  the  forests 
which  differ  considerably  from  those  which  man  has  planted  and 
cared  for.  Environment  is  a  very  potent  factor  which  not  only  in* 
fluences  the  general  appearance  of  a  tree  but  also  the  structural  parts 
which  compose  it.  Trees  as  members  of  the  forest  stand  have  been 
considered  in  the  preceding  chapter.  The  subjoined  material  treats 
of  trees  used  for  purposes  other  than  forestry. 

Trees  are  not  only  valuable  for  their  products,  as  wood,  resin, 
fruit,  and  litter,  but  in  addition  have  an  aesthetic  and  a  protective 
value.  Although  tree-planting  for  shade  and  ornament  has  been 
practiced  assiduously  in  past  generations,  yet  the  value  of  such  plant- 
ing and  the  care  which  such  trees  require  and  should  receive  has  not 
been  fully  appreciated  until  lately.  Today  individual  trees  or  small 
groups  of  them  are  planted  rather  extensively  about  homes,  along 
streets,  in  parks  and  public  squares,  for  their  shade  and  shelter. 
They  are  also  used  about  the  home  to  screen  objectionable  objects, 
to  direct  and  restrict  the  views  along  general  lines,  to  frame  the 
home  picture  and  to  give  the  surroundings  the  expression  of  comfort 
and  homeliness. 


30 

The  establishment  and  care  of  shade  and  ornamental  trees  is  en- 
tirely different  from  the  care  of  forest  trees.  Knowledge  concern- 
ing the  life-history  of  trees  in  general  is,  however,  a  prerequisite  for 
the  proper  treatment  of  both  classes  of  trees,  but  the  art  by  which 
this  knowledge  is  applied  is  entirely  different.  The  forester  grows 
trees  to  harvest  and  at  harvest  time  he  aims  to  obtain  from  them 
as  much  and  as  high  grade  wood  as  possible.  The  tree  warden  grows 
trees  to  preserve.  He  aims  to  develop  a  tree  with  as  desirable  an 
appearance  as  possible  and  to  retain  it  as  long  as  the  vitality  of 
the  tree  will  permit. 

Thousands  of  dollars  are  spent  annually  by  shade  and  park  com- 
missions in  developing  the  aesthetic  side  of  our  cities,  towns,  and 
many  of  our  rural  districts.  The  commissions  or  individuals  who 
have  this  in  charge,  aim,  by  beautifying  the  environments,  not  only 
to  improve  the  health  and  efficiency  of  the  citizens,  but  also  to  raise 
their  moral  standard  and  hence  increase  their  social  worth. 


DECIDUOUS    AND   EVERGREEN    TREES. 

All  trees  native  to  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  when  in  a  healthy 
condition,  bear  green  foliage  in  summer.  In  autumn  many  of  the 
green  leaves  change  to  brilliant  colors,  yellow,  scarlet,  deep  red,  or 
purple,  and  gradually  fall  to  the  ground.  The  species  of  trees  whose 
leaves  lose  their  green  color  and  fall  in  autumn  are  known  as 
deciduous  trees.  Most  of  the  trees  native  to  the  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania are  deciduous.  The  deciduous  trees  are  also  known  as  hard- 
woods or  broad-leaf  trees.  The  Oaks,  Maples,  Birches,  and  Chest- 
nut are  common  examples  of  this  group.  Many  of  the  representa- 
tives in  this  group  yield  valuable  products  and  furnish  interesting 
objects  of  study  on  account  of  their  variation  in  form.  In  winter 
the  deciduous  trees  are  far  more  conspicuous  than  in  summer  since 
the  dense  leaf  canopy  is  absent.  This  affords  an  opportunity  to 
study  the  trees  with  special  reference  to  their  form,  branching,  and 
bark.  These  characters  are  among  the  most  helpful  in  distinguish- 
ing our  common  trees,  especially  since  they  are  at  hand  at  all  sea- 
sons of  the  year.  The  leaves  of  a  few  deciduous  species  like  the 
Beech  and  some  of  the  Oaks  die  in  autumn  but  often  persist  through 
the  winter. 

Some  species,  however,  do  not  shed  all  of  their  leaves  in  fall.  Such 
trees  are  known  as  evergreen  trees.  The  evergreen  habit  is  char- 
acteristic for  most  trees  commonly  known  as  conifers.  Most  of 
the  conifers  have  needle-shaped  leaves  which  persist  for  two  or  more 
years.  The  Larch,  native  to  this  State,  and  the  introduced  Bald  Cy- 
press are,  however,  two  species  which  shed  all  their  leaves  in  fall  and 
during  the  winter  appear  like  dead  conifers.  The  persistence  of  the 


31 

foliage  of  most  of  the  conifers  enriches  the  winter  scenery  and  af- 
fords shelter  for  birds  and  other  animals.  Many  conifers  are  highly 
prized  for  ornamental  purposes  and  some  yield  valuable  commer- 
cial products.  The  Pines,  Spruces,  Firs,  Cedars,  and  Hemlocks  are 
the  commonest  examples  of  this  group.  Tn  addition  to  the  conifers 
a  few  broad-leaf  species,  such  as  Rhododendron,  Mountain  Laurel,  and 
American  Holly,  are  evergreen.  A  transition  from  the  evergreen  to 
the  deciduous  habit  may  be  found  in  the  Deciduous  Holly  and  the 
Laurel  Magnolia  which  are  deciduous  in  the  northern  and  evergreen 
in  the  southern  states. 

The  deciduous  trees  are  commonest  in  the  eastern  part  of  North 
America  while  the  evergreen  are  commonest  in  the  western  part. 
The  former  are  usually  found  in  mixed  stands,  while  the  latter  often 
occur  in  extensive  pure  stands.  The  hardwood  species  usually  occur 
on  rather  fertile  soils  while  the  conifers  may  thrive  on  more  sterile 
ones.  Both  the  deciduous  and  the  evergreen  habits  have  their  ad- 
vantages. The  shedding  of  the  leaves  in  fall  is  a  protective  adapta- 
tion since  it  reduces  transpiration,  danger  from  snow-break,  and 
damage  from  noxious  gases.  The  evergreen  trees  have  the  advantage 
of  lower  summer  transpiration  and  are  ready  at  any  season  of  the 
year  for  constructive  activity.  They  are  also  less  subject  to  damage 
by  frost  during  the  growing  season.  The  advent  of  forestry  may 
change  the  structure  and  distribution  of  our  forests.  The  present 
tendency  seems  to  be  gradually  and  cumulatively  in  favor  of  the 
conifers. 


THE    AGE    OF   TREES. 

Some  trees  reach  great  size  and  enormous  age  while  others  re- 
main small  and  die  young.  The  size  and  age  which  a  tree  attains 
depend  upon  the  inherent  tendency  of  the  species  and  the  factors  of 
the  environment.  Some  species  which  naturally  grow  tall  and  be- 
come old  may  remain  small  under  unnatural  and  unfavorable 
growth  conditions.  Other  species  never  become  large  and  old  even 
under  the  most  favorable  growth  conditions  since  it  is  inborn  in 
them  to  remain  small.  A  definite  age  limit  cannot  be  fixed  for  each 
species  but  for  general  convenience  we  may  classify  our  common 
trees  as  short-lived  or  long-lived.  Of  the  trees  native  to  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania  the  Oaks,  Chestnut,  Button  wood,  Tulip  Tree,  White 
Pine,  and  Hemlock  may  be  regarded  as  long-lived  trees,  and  the  Pop- 
lars, Willows,  most  Birches,  and  some  Cherries  as  short-lived.  Some 
of  the  White  Oaks  found  in  the  original  forest  of  Pennsylvania 
showed  an  age  of  approximately  500  years.  Some  of  the  trees  of  this 
State  reach  a  great  age  and  enormous  size,  still  none  approach  such 


32 

trees  as  the  Big  Cypress  Tree  of  Tule  found  in  the  state  of  Oaxaca, 
Mexico,  or  the  Sequoia  of  California. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  tell  the  age  of  a  tree  or  that  of  an  even- 
aged  stand  of  trees.  Planting  records  are  often  very  valuable  in 
determining  their  exact  age.  The  best  means  of  finding  out  the 
exact  age  of  a  tree  is  to  ask  the  owner  who  kept  a  record  when  the 
tree  was  planted.  This  method  may  be  used  for  some  ornamental 
trees  and  for  forest  stands  which  were  artificially  established.  De- 
tailed records  should  be  kept  of  all  forest  stands  whether  established 
artificially  or  naturally.  The  determination  of  the  age  of  trees  in 
the  original  forest  or  in  an  unregulated  forest  is  a  more  difficult 
task.  The  age  of  a  young  tree  like  that  of  a  child  is  more  readily 
determined  than  that  of  an  old  tree.  The  best  test  for  telling  the 
age  of  a  tree,  if  planting  records  are  wanting,  is  to  count  the  an- 
nual rings  on  a  cross-section  of  the  stem  near  to  the  ground  and 
adding  to  this  number,  as  many  years  as  it  took  the  tree  to  grow  to 
that  height.  (Plate  I,  two  lower  series  of  drawings,  and  Plate  XI, 
1,  3).  Each  ring  usually  represents  the  growth  of  one  year.  A  sec- 
ond test  will  apply  to  such  species  as  White  Pine,  which  develop 
their  lateral  branches  in  distinct  and  rather  regular  whorls.  (Plate 
I,  upper  right  figure,  and  Fig.  19).  Each  whorl  normally  represents 
a  year's  growth.  If  the  branches  have  fallen  off  one  can  often  find 
the  scars  of  the  branches  on  the  stem.  (See  Frontispiece  and  Figs. 
25  and  26).  The  age  of  young  trees  or  small  branches  can  also  be 
determined  by  counting  the  rings  of  terminal  bud-scale  scars  (Plate 
I,  upper  left  figure).  The  portion  of  the  branchlet  from  the  end 
down  to  the  first  ring  of  bud-scale  scars  represents  the  last  season's 
growth  while  that  between  the  first  and  second  rings  represents  the 
next  to  the  last  season's  growth  and  so  on.  To  tell  the  age  of  trees 
may  sometimes  be  difficult  but  it  is  usually  fascinating.  After  you 
have  been  successful  in  determining  the  age  of  a  few  trees,  you  may 
find  yourself  questioning  the  age  of  others  as  you  walk  or  drive 
by  them.  A  careful  study  of  their  growth  will  often  indicate  the 
successes  and  failures  which  they  met  during  their  development, 
since  a  relatively  narrow  ring  often  indicates  a  struggle,  while  a 
wide  ring  often  indicates  favorable  growth  conditions. 

THE  FORM  AND   STRUCTURE   OF  TREES. 
1.    FORM  : 

By  form  is  meant  the  general  appearance  of  a  tree.  One  can 
study  the  form  of  deciduous  or  broad-leaved  trees  best  in  winter 
when  they  are  devoid  of  their  foliage.  After  one  is  familiar  with 
the  general  form  of  different  trees  it  is  possible  to  distinguish  the 
different  species  even  at  a  great  distance.  The  form,  together  with 


PLATE  I.     THE  AGE  OF  TREES. 


Fig.  34.    OPEN  GROWN  PINES. 
"  °  '    B"1    ™        eMurrOTt and  developed  in  same  envir- 

01  per- 


u  tnen  repeatedly  subdivides      Such  a  trunk  i« 
known  as  a  deliquescent  trunk.  k  ls 


Fig.  36.    FORM  OF  LOMBARDY 
POPLAR. 


Fig.  37.     FORM  OF  WEEPING 
WILLOW. 


Fig.    38.     FORM   OF   A   YOUNG   PIN  Fig.  39.     FORM  OF  AN  OLD  PIN 

OAK.  OAK. 


Fig.  40.  FORM  OF  A  SASSAFRAS. 


Fig.  41.  FORM  OF  A  YOUNG  OPEN 
GROWN  TULIP  TREE. 


Fig.  42.  FORM  OF  A  RED  PINE.      Fig.  43. 


FORM  OF  A  TABLE  MOUN- 
TAIN PINE. 
It  developed  in  a  closed  stand.  Diameter 
22  inches. 


33 

the  color  and  figure  of  the  bark,  is  a  character  by  which  many  of 
our  trees  may  be  accurately  distinguished.  The  form  of  trees  varies 
with  the  species,  the  environment,  and  the  sylvicultural  treatment. 

Some  trees  attain  an  enormous  size  and  great  age  while  others 
never  become  large  or  old.  The  Sequoias  of  California,  also  known 
as  Redwoods  and  Big  Trees,  and  the  Cypress  trees  of  Mexico  have 
representatives  which  are  regarded  the  largest  and  oldest  in  exist- 
ence. A  section  of  a  Big  Tree  now  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History  in  New  York  City  shows  that  the  tree  when  cut  was  1,341 
years  old.  It  was  90  feet  in  circumference  at  the  base,  over  050 
feet  in  height,  and  estimated  by  lumbermen  to  contain  400,000  board 
feet  of  lumber.  Probably  the  largest  Cypress  tree  in  the  world 
stands  in  a  churchyard  about  five  miles  from  the  City  of  Oaxaca 
in  Mexico.  This  tree  has  a  circumference,  according  to  recent  ineas 
urements,  of  154  feet  2  inches,  6  feet  above  the  ground.  It  is  about 
125  feet  high  and,  according  to  various  estimators,  can  scarcely  be 
less  than  4,000  years  old,  and  may  possibly  be  over  5,000  years. 
Specimens  of  this  size  and  age  have  never  been  found  in  the  State 
of  Pennsylvania.  Some  of  our  native  trees,  the  Chestnut,  White  Oak, 
Red  Oak,  Tulip  Tree,  Hemlock,  and  White  Pine  have,  however,  at- 
tained great  size.  A  few  large  specimens  which  were  cut  in  recent 
years,  showed  by  count  of  their  annual  rings  that  they  had  started  life 
before  Columbus  discovered  America.  In  Forest  Leaves,  Vol.  IX, 
No.  10,  Dr.  J.  T.  Eothrock  describes  a  White  Oak  standing  near 
Kutztown,  Berks  county.  It  was  31  feet  in  circumference  at  the 
level  of  the  ground  and  had  a  spread  of  branches  of  104  feet  and  an 
estimated  height  of  almost  74  feet.  This  tree  was  probably  the 
largest  of  this  species  in  Pennsylvania.  Larger  specimens  of  Chest- 
nut have  been  found  in  this  State.  The  largest  Chestnut  tree  on 
record  had  a  diameter  of  17  feet.  It  was  found  near  Waynesville, 
North  Carolina.  Other  species  like  the  Scrub  Oak  (Fig.  4),  Gray 
Birch  (Figs.  64  and  69),  and  Scrub  Pine  never  become  large.  Some 
species  may  remain  small  in  one  region  and  yet  become  large  in 
another.  The  Chinquapin  which  reaches  its  northern  limit  in  Penn- 
sylvania seldom  exceeds  a  height  of  10  feet  in  this  State  while  it 
reaches  a  height  of  50 -feet  in  southern  Arkansas. 

The  character  of  the  stem,  to  a  large  extent,  determines  the  form  of 
the  tree.  The  main  axis  of  a  tree  usually  grows  erect.  The  lateral 
branches  vary  according  to  the  species  and  the  position  of  neighbor- 
ing branches.  In  some  species  like  the  Weeping  Willow  (Fig.  37) 
they  are  drooping,  in  others  like  the  Black  Gum  and  Pin  Oak  (Fig. 
38)  they  are  horizontal,  while  those  of  the  Lombardy  Poplar  are 
ascending  (Fig.  36).  If  the  terminal  shoot  is  removed  or  killed  a 
lateral  branch  in  time  may  take  its  place.  Sometimes  two  lateral 


34 

branches  strive  for  the  leadership  but  they  are  such  close  competitor* 
that  neither  can  win  out.  The  result  is  a  "stag-headed"  tree.  Again 
a  dormant  bud  may  be  stimulated  into  activity  with  the  result  that 
no  lateral  branch  obtains  the  leadership.  After  studying  these 
growth  forms,  one  is  inclined  to  think  that  the  terminal  shoot  pre- 
vents the  erect  growth  of  the  lateral  branches. 

Environment  has  a  marked  influence.  The  form  of  a  tree  growing 
on  an  exposed  mountain  top  differs  very  much  from  one  growing  on 
sheltered  bottomland.  An  open  grown  tree  has  a  form  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  one  grown  in  dense  forest  stand.  The  form  of  open 
grown  specimens  varies  with  the  species.  Two  different  species 
of  Pine  shown  in  Fig.  34  grew  side  by  side  in  the  same  environment 
and  still  developed  entirely  different  crowns.  Open  grown  trees 
usually  branch  near  the  ground  and  have  a  broad,  deep,  symmetrical 
crown,  while  trees  grown  in  dense  forest  stand  usually  branch  far- 
ther from  the  ground  and  have  a  long  clean  trunk  with  a  shallow  and 
often  irregular  and  unsymmetrical  crown.  Trees  grown  in  a  dense 
stand  may  not  be  so  attractive  as  those  grown  in  the  open  but  they 
yield  a  much  higher  grade  of  wood,  since  the  lateral  branches  which 
produce  many  of  the  knots  in  lumber  are  removed  early  in  the  life 
history  of  the  tree.  The  density  of  the  forest  stand  should  be  so 
regulated  that  on  every  acre  of  soil  not  only  the  greatest  quantity 
but  also  the  best  quality  of  wood  is  produced. 

Two  kinds  of  branching  are  usually  recognized,  the  excurrent  or 
upright  and  the  deliquescent  or  spreading.  When  the  main  trunk 
is  continuous  and  extends  upward  to  the  tip  without  dividing  it  is 
known  as  excurrent,  and  when  the  main  trunk  is  not  continuous  but 
divides  and  subdivides  into  more  or  less  equal  parts  it  is  known  as 
deliquescent.  Most  of  our  evergreen  species  have  the  excurrent  type 
of  branching,  while  most  of  our  deciduous  trees  have  the  deliques- 
cent type.  A  few  of  the  latter,  as  the  Pin  Oak,  Tulip  Tree,  and  But- 
tonwood,  often  show  an  excurrent  or  upright  tendency  in  the  form  of 
their  trunk,  especially  when  young. 

2.     BARK  : 

If  we  examine  the  growing  point  of  a  seedling  we  will  find  that 
there  is  very  little  difference  among  the  parts  composing  it.  Soon, 
as  a  result  of  growth,  various  kinds  of  tissue  will  be  formed.  At  the 
end  of  its  first  growing  season  we  can  differentiate  roots,  stem,  and 
leaves.  The  stem  is  still  further  distinguished  into  pith,  wood,  and 
bark  (Plate  XI,  1.)  Nature  seems  to  know  that  the  vital  elementi 
in  the  stem  need  protection.  This  protection  is  given  by  the  bark. 

Bark  is  that  portion  of  the  stem  which  lies  outside  of  the  cam- 
bium layer.  It  consists  of  an  outer  and  an  inner  part.  The  former 
is  commonly  known  as  the  outer  or  dry  bark  and  functions  primarily 


Fig.   44.     WHITE  PINE. 

Trunk  25  incheg  in  diameter. 


Fig.   45.     RED  PINE. 
Trunk  20  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  46.     PITCH  PINE. 

Trunk  22  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.   47.     YELLOW  PINE. 
Trunk  29  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  48.     JERSEY  OR  SCRUB  PINE. 

Trunks  7  and  14  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  49.     AMERICAN  LARCH. 
Trunk  18  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  50.    BALSAM  FIR. 
Trunk  16  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  51.     BLACK  SPRUCE. 
Trunk  14  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.   52.     RED  CEDAR. 
Trunk  24  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  53.    HEMLOCK. 
Trunk  22  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  54.    AMERICAN  HOP  HORN- 
BEAM. 

Trunk  18  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  55.     RED  MULBERRY 

Trunk  17  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  56.    REDBUD. 
Trunk  8  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.    57.    BUTTON  WOOD. 
Trunk  18  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  58.     SWEET  BUCKEYE. 
Trunk  32  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  59.    HONEY  LOCUST. 
Trunk  30  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  60.     RED  MAPLE. 

Trunk  8  inches  in  diameter 


Fig.  61.     RED  MAPLE. 
Trunk  30  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  62.     SUGAR  MAPLE. 

Trunk  32  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  63.     STRIPED  MAPLE, 
Trunk  4  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  64.    GRAY  BIRCH. 

Trunks  4-9  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  65.     RIVER  BIRCH. 
Trunks  6  inches  in  diameter, 


Fig.  66.     SLIPPERY  ELM. 
Trunk  26  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.   67.     SASSAFRAS. 
Trunk  26  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  68.    YELLOW  BIRCH, 
Trunk  8  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  69.     GRAY  BIRCH. 
Trunk  4  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.   70.     BLACK  BIRCH  (Young.) 
Trunk  7  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.    71.      BLACK    BIRCH    (Old.) 
Trunk  27  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  72.     RED  OAK. 
Trunk  46  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  73.     WHITE  OAK 
Trunk  30  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  74.     BLACK  OAK. 
Trunk  42  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.    75.     ROCK   OAK. 
Trunk  34  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.   76.     PIN  OAK. 
Trunk  15  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  77.     SWAMP  WHITE  OAK. 
Trunk  32  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.    78.      SCARLET  OAK. 
Trunk  14  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.    79.     BASS  WOOD. 
Trunks  8-14  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  80.     BUTTERNUT. 
Trunk  20  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  81.     BLACK  WALNUT. 

Trunk  24  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.    82.     CHESTNUT. 
Trunk  62  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  83.     BLACK  LOCUST. 
Trunk  18  inches  in  diameter 


Fig.  84.     TULIP  TREE. 

'nink  21  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.    85.     CUCUMBER. 
Trunk  26  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  86.     WHITE  ASH. 
Trunk  30  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  87.     BLACK  ASH. 
Trunk  22  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  88.    SHAG-BARK  HICKORY. 

Trunk  26  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  89.     PIGNUT  HICKORY. 
Trunk  22  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.   90.     MOCKER  NUT  HICKORY 
Trunk  18  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  91.     BITTER  NUT  HICKORY. 
Trunk  24  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.   92.     BEECH. 
Trunk  30  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  93.     AMERICAN  HORNBEAM. 

Trunk  6  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  94.     HONEY  LOCUST. 
Trunk  10  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  95.  LARGE-TOOTHED  ASPENS. 
Trunks  16  and  18  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  96.    WILD  BLACK  CHERRY. 

Trunk  6  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.    97.     WILD   BLACK   CHERRY. 
Trunk  18  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.   98.     DOMESTIC  CHERRY. 

Trunks  12  and  14  inches  in  diameter 


Fig.  99.    TREE  OF  HEAVEN. 
Trunk  12  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.    100.     BLACK    GUM. 
Trunk  22  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.  101.    PERSIMMON. 
Trunk  12  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.    102.     HACKBERRY. 
Trunk  8  inches  in  diameter. 


Fig.    103.     FLOWERING  DOGWOOD. 
Trunk  6  inches  in  diameter. 


. 


.  . .  •  .••  .•••*:: 

•••"•*••••  •••• 

••••£•*  »••••"      ••••• 


35 

as  a  protective  covering  while  the  latter  is  known  as  the  inner  or 
living  bark  and  helps  to  convey  the  food  which  was  manufactured 
in  the  leaves  to  various  parts  of  the  stem.  Thickness  of  the  bark 
is  often  determined  by  the  rapidity  with  which  it  peels  off.  Its 
thickness,  together  with  its  larger  number  of  dead,  air-containing 
cells,  makes  it  a  very  effective  protective  covering;  but  the  chief 
protective  feature  of  bark  is  the  formation  of  corky  layers.  The 
chief  function  of  the  protective  covering  in  plants  is  the  prevention 
of  excessive  transpiration.  The  regular  cork  formations  in  the  bark 
help  very  much  in  controlling  transpiration.  Cork  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  elements  of  the  bark.  Its  structure  is  complex  and  vari- 
able. Cork  is  impermeable  to  air  and  water,  a  poor  conductor  of 
heat,  and  a  preventer  of  penetration  by  parasites.  Local  out-growths 
of  cork  like  the  wings  of  the  Sweet  Gum  and  Hackberry  are  prob- 
ably of  no  value  to  the  plants  producing  them.  In  some  species  the 
bark  is  not  fully  "ripened"  at  the  end  of  the  growing  season,  con- 
sequently the  subjacent  tissues  do  not  have  the  necessary  protection 
and  frequently  die  back  during  the  winter.  The  color  of  the  bark 
varies  in  different  species,  in  different  situations,  in  different  parts 
of  the  same  species,  and  with  the  age  of  the  trees.  Young  bark  is 
usually  green,  but  it  soon  loses  this  color  due  to  the  formation  of 
cork  and  other  substances.  A  few  species  like  Sassafras  retain  their 
green  color  for  a  relatively  long  time  due  to  deferred  or  late  cork 
formation.  Gray,  brown,  and  black  are  the  prevailing  bark  colors 
while  red  and  white  are  also  common.  Color  of  the  bark  is  very 
helpful  in  distinguishing  many  of  our  common  trees.  All  the  species 
of  Birch  native  to  Pennsylvania  may  be  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  the  color  of  their  bark  together  with  a  few  other  bark  char- 
acteristics. The  bark  on  some  of  the  older  trunks  becomes  rough 
and  then  the  characteristic  color  of  the  species  may  be  present  only 
on  the  branches  and  young  stems.  The  outer  bark  may  be  uniform, 
mottled,  or  variegated  in  color.  The  interior  and  exterior  parts  of 
the  bark  may  differ  in  color.  Black  Oak  bark  is  yellow  within  and 
black  without,  while  Hemlock  is  reddish  within  and  brown  to  black 
without.  The  bark  of  the  Button  wood  is  peculiar  since  it  is  dark 
brown  without  and  green,  yellow,  or  white  within.  The  inner  bark 
often  becomes  very  conspicuous  due  to  the  complete  peeling  off  of 
the  outer  bark. 

Young  branches  and  stems  are  usually  smooth  since  the  bark  ex- 
pands sufficiently  to  accommodate  the  increased  diameter  growth 
of  the  interior.  Later,  in  most  species,  the  bark  begins  to  crack, 
since  the  growth  of  the  interior  is  too  rapid  for  the  expansion  of 
the  bark.  In  a  few  species  like  Beech,  Blue  Beech,  and  Balsam 
Fir  the  bark  remains  thin  and  smooth  throughout  life.  Other  species 
like  Basswood  and  Pin  Oak  remain  smooth  for  a  long  time  but  be- 


come  furrowed  later,  while  many  other  species  become  rough  early 
in  life.  The  manner  in  which  the  bark  cracks  open  or  peels  off  af- 
lords  a  ready  means  of  identification  for  many  of  our  trees.  The 
exfoliation  of  the  bark  is  rather  constant  for  each  species.  In  some 
species  like  the  Yellow  Birch  and  Paper  Birch  it  peels  off  in  thin 
film-like  papery  layers.  In  the  Shag-bark  Hickory  it  is  shaggy;  in 
many  species  like  the  Pines  and  Spruces  it  is  scaly ;  while  in  others 
like  the  White  Cedar  it  is  shreddy.  Many  species  have  furrowed 
bark.  The  furrows  run  usually  in  a  longitudinal  direction  but  may 
run  transversely.  The  furrows  or  fissures  separate  ridges.  These 
vary  with  the  species.  The  fissures  may  be  short  or  long,  close  or 
distant,  narrow  or  wide,  longitudinal,  transverse,  or  diagonal.  The 
ridges  may  be  pointed  or  broad,  high  or  low,  smooth  or  scaly.  The 
bark  may  be  broken  up  into  small  square  or  rectangular  blocks  as 
in  the  Black  Gum.  This  form  of  bark  is  often  spoken  of  as  "alli- 
gator bark."  See  Figures  44-103  for  bark  of  most  of  our  important 
native  trees. 

The  bark  may  be  of  considerable  technical  value.  Hemlock  and 
some  species  of  Oak  and  Spruce  have  bark  which  is  rich  in  tannin. 
The  bark  of  these  species  is  used  extensively  in  the  leather  industry. 
The  bark  of  a  European  species  of  Oak  is  highly  prized  on  account 
of  the  large  quantity  of  cork  which  it  produces.  The  inner  bark  of 
some  species  yields  dyeing  material  while  that  of  others  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  fibre  cloth.  Formerly  the  bark  of  the  Paper 
Birch  was  used  in  the  construction  of  canoes. 

3.    TWIGS  : 

Twigs  are  the  terminal  parts  of  branches.  The  term  twig  usually 
refers  to  that  portion  of  the  terminal  part  of  the  branch  which 
grew  in  the  last  season.  Those  portions  of  the  branch  which  began 
their  growth  a  few  seasons  ago  are  usually  spoken  of  as  older  twigs 
or  branchlets.  The  twigs  have  their  origin  in  the  vegetative  buds 
which  may  be  located  on  the  terminal  end  of  the  twig  of  the  previous 
season's  growth  or  along  its  side.  If  they  emerge  from  terminal 
buds  they  become  leaders,  and  if  from  lateral  buds  they  will  develop 
into  lateral  branches.  The  lateral  branches  may  be  'alternate,  op- 
posite, or  whorled  (Plate  II) .  The  method  of  branching  is  very  help- 
ful in  distinguishing  our  common  trees.  The  lateral  branches  of  most 
of  them  alternate  with  each  other,  while  a  fair  number  are  opposite 
and  a  few  whorled.  The  terminal  twig  elongates  rapidly  while  the 
lateral  ones  usually  remain  shorter  and  occasionally  are  compressed 
to  a  stub  or  spur. 

When  the  vegetative  buds  burst  open  in  spring  young  twigs, 
which  are  often  covered  with  developing  leaves,  emerge  from  them. 
These  twigs  are,  at  first,  usually  delicate,  greenish  in  color,  and 


PLATE  II.     TYPES  OF  TWIGS  AND  PITH. 


1.  Tulip  Tree    (alternate  branching). 

2.  Catalpa     (whorled    branching). 

3.  White  Ash   (opposite  branching). 

4.  Gray  Birch    (slender  and   warty). 

5.  Staghorn  Sumach    (hairy). 

6.  Elderberry    (lenticels   prominent). 

7.  Black    Cherry     (lenticels     transversely     elon- 

gated) . 

8.  Chestnut   (lenticels  small  and  numerous). 

Drawings  are  about  one-half  natural  size. 


9.  Black  Gum  (lenticels  few  and  inconspicuous). 

10.  Black    Walnut    (chambered   pith). 

11.  Sumach    (large    pith). 

12.  Sassafras    (medium-sized    pith). 

13.  Oak    (star-shaped  pith). 

14.  Black    Alder    (triangular    pith). 

15.  Common  Locust  (angular  pith). 

16.  Elm    (circular   pith). 

17.  Birch    (semicircular    or    irregular    pith). 


PLATE  III.     TYPES  OF  BUDS. 


1.  Sugar  Maple    (opposite). 

2.  Chestnut    (alternate). 

3.  Butternut   (superposed). 

4.  Red  Maple    (accessory). 

5.  Striped  Maple    (stalked). 

6.  Striped  Maple    (valvate). 

7.  Red   Oak    (scaly). 

8.  Buttonwood    (sub-petiolar) . 

9.  Beech    (solitary   terminal). 

10.  Black    Oak    (clustered    and    hairy    terminal). 

11.  Basswood    (axillary   and   pseudo-terminal). 

12.  American  Elm,   showing   (1)   leaf  buds  and    (f)    flower  buds. 

13.  Papaw   (naked  flower-  and  leaf -buds). 

14.  Common  Locust  (imbedded). 

15.  Trembling  Aspen    (sharp-pointed). 
Drawings  are  about  one-half  natural  size. 


37 

often  hairy.  As  they  develop  during  the  season  they  become  firmer 
and  often  lose  their  green  color  and  their  hairs.  The  direction  of 
the  new  growth  is  variable.  In  many  species  it  takes  at  first  a 
drooping  direction  and  later,  as  its  elements  become  firmer,  it  as- 
sumes a  horizontal  or  ascending  position.  The  new  growth  of  the 
Pines  is  conspicuous  in  that  it  grows  in  an  erect  direction  at  first 
and  later  becomes  horizontal  or  drooping. 

The  taste,  smell,  and  color  of  the  twigs,  are  helpful  in  distinguish- 
ing some  of  our  common  species.  The  twigs  of  some  species  as  the 
Black  Birch,  Spice  Bush,  Sassafras,  and  Wild  Cherry  have  a  char- 
acteristic taste  and  smell.  The  color  of  the  twigs  may  be  green 
as  in  the  Sassafras,  red  as  in  the  Basswood  and  Red  Maple,  or  brown 
as  in  the  Sugar  Maple.  Many  other  different  colors  and  combina- 
tions of  color  aid  materially  in  distinguishing  our  trees. 

Some  twigs  are  rough  while  others  are  rather  smooth.  They 
may  be  roughened  by  hairs,  lenticels,  raised  leaf-scars,  bud-scale 
scars,  warty  or  resinous  exudations,  corky  projections,  or  decurrent 
projections  of  the  bark.  If  we  examine  a  young  twig  just  after  it 
has  emerged  from  the  bud  we  will  find  that  it  is  usually  green  in 
color.  At  the  end  of  the  first  season's  growth  a  thick  bark  has 
usually  developed  which  is  no  longer  green  on  the  surface,  but,  by 
cutting  a  cross  section  of  a  twig,  one  will  often  find  that  the  inner 
bark  is  still  green.  This  green  tissue  develops  chlorophyll  and  manu- 
factures food  just  as*  does  the  green  tissue  of  the  leaves.  As  the 
bark  increases  in  thickness  the  chlorophyll  decreases,  eventually  dis- 
appearing entirely  from  the  stem.  In  order  that  this  green  tissue 
in  the  bark  may  function  it  is  necessary  that  gases  be  exchanged 
through  the  bark.  Special  structural  modifications  on  the  bark 
known  as  lenticels  (Figs.  96  and  98)  make  possible  this  exchange 
of  gases  just  as  the  stomata  on  the  leaf-surfaces  allow  and  even  regu- 
late the  exchange  of  the  gases  of  the  leaf. 

The  lenticels  are  very  numerous  and  conspicuous  on  some  species, 
while  on  others  they  are  rare  and  inconspicuous.  They  are  raised  on 
some  species  like  the  Elder,  while  on  others  they  are  even  with  the 
bark.  Their  color  varies.  They  may  be  white,  gray,  pinkish,  yel- 
low, brown,  or  black.  In  outline  they  are  usually  circular  or  slightly 
elongated.  In  the  Cherries  and  Birches  they  are  confluent,  a  char- 
acteristic which  results  in  the  horizontally  elongated  lines  of  lenti- 
cels (Figs.  96  and  98)  so  common  on  their  trunks. 

The  duration  of  the  lenticels  varies  with  the  species  and  its  en- 
vironment. As  a  rule  the  more  rapidly  bark  is  formed  the  shorter 
is  the  duration  of  the  lenticels.  On  some  species  it  is  difficult  to  find 
lenticels  on  any  but  the  last  season's  growth  while  on  others  they 
may  persist  for  some  years,  The  exfoliation  of  the  bark  causes  their 


disappearance.  On  a  few  species  like  the  Birches,  Cherries,  and 
Honey  Locust  they  persist  for  many  years. 

The  distribution  of  lenticels  has  not  yet  been  systematized.  They 
are  distributed  rather  uniformly  over  the  newer  growth  but  are  ir- 
regularly spaced.  In  some  species  they  seem  to  be  somewhat  clus- 
tered just  below  the  nodes  and  in  others  like  Honey  Locust  they  are 
more  numerous  on  the  lower  side  of  horizontal  branches. 

The  pith  usually  occupies  the  central  portion  of  twigs,  branchlets, 
and  roots.  It  is  composed  of  thin-walled  cells  which  are  loosely  ag- 
gregated. It  seldom  increases  in  size  after  the  first  year.  The  pith 
of  a  tree  100  years  old  is  usually  not  wider  than  that  in  a  year  old 
twig  of  the  same  species.  It  becomes  functionless  early  in  the  life 
of  a  tree. 

The  pith  of  conifers  is  rather  uniform  in  outline,  structure,  and 
color,  but  in  the  broad-leaved  species  it  is  very  variable.  In  most 
species  it  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  twigs,  but  in  a 
few  species  like  Sumach,  Elder,  Sassafras,  Ailanthus,  and  Kentucky 
Coffee-tree  it  is  relatively  large.  The  outline  in  cross  section  may 
be  5-angled  or  star- shaped  as  in  the  Oaks,  Chestnut,  and  Aspens, 
3-angled  as  in  Alder  and  some  Birches,  angular  as  in  Common  Locust, 
circular  as  in  Elm,  and  ovoid  as  in  Basswood.  As  a  rule  the  pith 
is  continuous,  but  in  a  few  species  like  Black  Walnut,  Butternut, 
and  Hackberry  it  is  chambered.  A  few  species  like  Catalpa  have 
continuous  pith  except  at  the  nodes  where  it  is  sometimes  chambered. 
A  less  distinct  separation  of  the  pith  is  found  in  Black  Gum,  Papaw, 
Tulip  Tree,  and  the  Magnolias  where  plates  of  stone  cells  occur.  The 
color  of  the  pith  may  be  white  as  in  the  Sugar  Maple,  pinkish  as  in 
Red  Maple,  brown  as  in  Striped  Maple,  Mountain  Maple,  Sumachs, 
and  Walnuts,  red  as  in  Kentucky  Coffee-tree,  or  greenish  as  in  Shad 
Bush. 

4.    BUDS  : 

In  temperate  and  colder  climates  the  growing  season  extends  over 
a  part  of  the  year  only.  During  the  warmer  part  of  the  year  vegeta- 
tion is  active,  but  as  soon  as  the  weather  becomes  cooler,  many  an- 
nual plants  die  while  others  make  special  preparation  for  the  win- 
ter. One  of  the  preparations  is  the  formation  of  buds.  They  are 
formed  in  most  trees  and  shrubs  of  cold  and  arid  climates.  If  we 
examine  a  twig  from  one  of  our  common  trees  in  the  month  of  July 
we  can  usually  find  buds  starting  to  develop  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves.  They  continue  to  develop  until  they  have  reached  a  certain 
size,  and  then  remain  in  an  inactive  condition  for  a  few  months  in 
winter,  only  to  become  active  again  when  favorable  growth  condi- 
tions return  in  spring.  A  year  usually  includes  a  period  of  rest 
alternating  with  a  period  of  activity.  Buds  may  be  divided  into 


39 

two  classes,  active  and  resting.  Active  buds  are  growing  or  develop- 
ing buds,  such  as  one  finds  in  late  summer  prior  to  the  period  of 
rest  and  early  in  spring  when  the  resting  buds  have  been  awakened 
from  their  winter's  slumbers.  The  resting  buds  are  commonly  known 
as  winter  buds  (Plate  ITT). 

Buds  are  protected  growing  points.  The  degree  of  protection 
given  to  the  growing  points  varies  with  the  species.  A  few  of  our 
trees  and  shrubs  have  buds  which  are  nearly  or  quite  destitute  of  a 
scaly  covering.  These  are  know  as  naked  buds.  The  protection 
usually  consists  of  scales  which  may  be  supplemented  by  hairy  out- 
growths, resin,  gums,  or  air  spaces.  These  are  known  as  scaly  buds. 
The  buds  may  be  covered  by  numerous  overlapping  scales,  known 
as  imbricated  bud-scales,  or  they  may  be  covered  by  simply  one  or 
two  visible  scales  which  do  not  overlap.  The  buds  of  the  Willows 
and  Buttonwood  are  covered  by  a  single  visible  bud-scale,  while  the 
buds  of  such  species  as  the  Striped  Maple  and  the  Black  Alder  have 
only  two  visible  bud-scales  whose  margins  simply  meet  and  do  not 
overlap.  The  latter  are  known  as  valvate  buds.  The  buds  may  also 
receive  protection  from  the  enlarged  bases  of  the  stalk  of  leaves 
which  often  persist  far  into  winter.  The  buds  covered  by  the  en- 
larged base  of  the  leaf-stalk  are  known  as  subpetiolar  buds.  The 
buds  of  some  of  our  common  trees  are  very  inconspicuous.  It  is 
often  difficult  to  locate  them  when  sunken  so  deeply  into  the  bark 
that  only  the  tip  is  visible.  The  size  of  the  buds  is  not  indicative 
of  the  size  of  the  flowers  or  leaves  which  they  will  produce  the  fol- 
lowing season.  Many  of  the  trees  which  bear  small  and  inconspicuous 
buds  produce  large  and  conspicuous  flowers  and  leaves.  The  prin- 
cipal functions  of  the  protective  covering  of  buds  are  the  prevention 
of  the  loss  of  water  from  the  tender  parts  within  and  the  protec- 
tion of  their  delicate  interior  from  mechanical  injury.  Some  add 
that  the  protection  also  minimizes  the  damaging  effect  of  sudden 
temperature  changes. 

The  position  of  buds  is  of  considerable  value  in  distinguishing 
many  of  our  trees  and  shrubs.  They  may  occur  at  the  end  of  the 
twigs  or  along  their  sides.  The  former  are  known  as  terminal  buds 
and  the  latter  as  lateral  buds.  The  terminal  buds  may  be  solitary 
as  on  the  Beech  or  clustered  as  on  the  Oaks.  On  most  of  our  trees 
and  shrubs  the  lateral  buds  appear  just  above  the  origins  of  leaf- 
stalks and  are  known  as  axillary  buds.  They  may  occur  in  pairs, 
one  on  one  side  of  the  twig  and  the  other  exactly  opposite,  or 
singly  forming  a  spiral  around  the  twig.  The  former  are  known  as 
opposite  buds  and  the  latter  as  alternate  buds.  The  axillary  buds 
may  occur  solitary  or  in  groups,  either  one  above  the  other,  or  side 
by  side.  If  they  occur  one  above  the  other  they  are  known  as  super- 
posed buds  and  if  they  occur  side  by  side  they  are  known  as  accessory 


40 

buds.  Sometimes  axillary  buds  remain  inactive  for  a  long  period  of 
time  without  losing  their  vitality.  Such  are  known  as  dormant  buds. 
During  their  dormant  period  they  remain  on  the  surface  of  the  trunk 
by  the  elongation  of  their  connection  with  their  point  of  origin.  A 
superabundance  of  food,  excessive  light,  or  the  death  of  a  great 
number  of  terminally  located  buds,  may  stimulate  them  into  activity 
again.  A  great  number  of  these  buds  are  often  found  along  the 
stem  of  such  species  as  Chestnut  and  Rock  Oak.  They  develop  into 
short  branches  which  are  known  as  "water  sprouts."  Some  buds 
are  produced  at  rather  unusual  points,  and  in  irregular  positions 
along  the  stem,  and  are  called  adventitious  'buds.  They  also  form 
"water  sprouts." 

One  finds  a  wide  variation  in  the  size  and  form  of  the  buds  which 
our  common  trees  produce.  Some  are  long  and  slender;  others  are 
short  and  stout.  Some  of  them  are  round  in  cross-section;  others 
are  angular.  Some  are  sharp-pointed;  others  are  blunt-pointed.  The 
buds  also  vary  in  the  manner  of  their  insertion  on  the  twigs.  Some 
are  inserted  directly  on  the  twig;  others  are  separated  from  the 
twig  by  a  stalk,  and  still  others  may  be  almost  entirely  covered  by 
the  twig.  The  former  are  called  sessile  buds,  the  next  stalked  buds, 
and  the  latter  imbedded  buds. 

The  kind  of  buds  which  a  tree  produces  is  of  considerable  import- 
ance, especially  where  fruit  trees  are  considered.  Three  principal 
kinds  of  buds  may  be  distinguished: — leaf  buds,  also  known  as  vege- 
tative buds,  the  contents  of  which  will  develop  into  stem  and  leaves; 
mixed  buds,  the  contents  of  which  consist  of  leaves  and  flowers  in 
their  formative  stage;  and  flower  buds,  also  known  as  propagative 
buds,  which  contain  the  elements  of  flowers  only.  How  can  one  find 
out  what  kind  of  buds  are  at  hand?  The  buds  may  be  cut  open 
by  means  of  a  sharp  knife  and  their  contents  studied  with  the  aid 
of  a  magnifying  glass.  One  may  also  take  a  twig  and  place  it  in 
a  jar  of  water  in  a  warm  room  and  in  about  a  week  the  buds  will 
have  expanded  far  enough  to  reveal  the  nature  of  their  contents.  The 
twig  with  its  buds  may  also  be  left  on  the  trees  and  its  development 
observed  in  spring  when  nature  opens  them.  With  all  this  varia- 
tion in  the  position,  insertion,  form,  structure,  and  kind  of  buds  we 
still  find  here,  as  in  all  nature,  law  and  order. 

5.    LEAVES  : 

The  shoot  of  a  seed  plant  consists  of  stem  and  leaves.  The  leav- 
of  our  common  trees  are  excellent  distinguishing  characters  by  which 
the  species  may  be  recognized.  They  are  variable  in  form.  This 
variation,  as  well  as  the  work  they  do,  is  little  appreciated  by  the 
crowds  which  annually  seek  their  shade  and  shelter.  This  chapter 


PLATE  IV.     TYPES  OF  LEAVES. 


1.  Black  Cherry    (simple). 

2.  Common   Locust    (compound). 

3.  Chestnut   (alternate  arrangement). 

4.  Sugar   Maple    (opposite   arrangement). 

5.  White   Pine    (5-clustered). 

6.  Pitch   Pine    (3-clustered). 

7.  Jersey    or    Scrub    Pine    (2-clustered). 

8.  Larch  (many  clustered). 

9.  Larch    (many    clustered   at  base;    solitary   on 

leading  shoots). 

Drawings  are  about  one-half  natural  size. 


10.  Red  Spruce  (4-sided). 

11.  Balsam  Fir  (flat  and  sessile). 

12.  Hemlock    (flat   and   stalked). 

13.  Red    Cedar    (scale-like   needles). 

14.  Arbor    Vitae    (scale-like   needles). 

15.  Arbor  Vitae  (section  enlarged  showing  glands 

on   leaves) . 

16.  Red  Cedar   (awl-shaped  needles). 


Bnsf/e  -pointed 


£nt/re  Dentate       Cac.roe/y-jerrtrte   Oerrafe 

PLATE  V.     TYPES  OF  LEAVES. 


41 

aims  to  give  a  general  description  of  leaves  and  a  brief  outline  of 
their  work. 

A  typical  foliage  leaf  consists  of  three  parts:  (1),  the  blade  or 
flattened  portion  (lamina) ;  (2),  the  leaf-stalk  (petiole) ;  and  (3), 
the  leaf -appendages  (stipules). 

Two  kinds  of  leaves  are  usually  recognized: — simple  and  com- 
pound (Plate  IV).  Simple  leaves  have  blades  which  are  more  or  less 
united  into  one  piece,  while  in  compound  leaves  each  leaf  is  composed 
of  a  number  of  smaller  leaflets.  Compound  leaves  may  have  all  the 
leaflets  originate  from  one  point  as  in  the  Buckeyes  (Plates  CXII, 
CXIII),  or  scattered  along  the  main  petiole  as  in  the  Common  Locust 
(Plate  XCVII).  Each  primary  division  of  a  compound  leaf  may 
again  be  compounded  as  in  the  Kentucky  Coffee-tree  (Plate  XCIV). 
Such  a  leaf  is  known  as  a  doubly  compound  leaf. 

The  arrangement  of  the  leaves  on  the  twigs  and  branches  of  our 
common  trees  may  be  alternate,  opposite,  or  whorled  (Plate  IV). 
When  the  arrangement  is  alternate,  the  individual  leaves  are  located 
singly  at  a  node;  when  opposite,  two  leaves  occur  opposite  each 
other  at  a  node;  and  when  whorled,  more  than  two  leaves  occur  at 
a  node  and  are  distributed  regularly  around  the  twig.  In  a  few 
species  as  the  Birches,  the  leaves  of  the  lateral  spurs  appear  to  be 
opposite,  but  upon  closer  examination  they  are  found  to  be  alternate. 

The  leaves  of  the  trees  native  to  this  State  may  be  classified  as 
follows:  (1),  Trees  with  needle-shaped  leaves,  known  as  conifers 
or  evergreens,  and  (2),  trees  with  broad  leaves  known  as  hardwoods 
or  deciduous  trees.  The  needle-shaped  trees  show  a  wide  variation 
in  the  form  and  distribution  of  their  needles.  They  may  occur 
singly,  in  fascicles  of  2,  3,  or  5,  or  in  clusters  on  lateral  spurs;  they 
may  also  be  stalked  or  sessile,  scale-like  or  awl-shaped,  and  flat, 
semi-circular,  triangular,  or  four-sided  in  cross-section.  The  broad- 
leaved  trees  have  an  even  wider  variation  in  form.  This  may  be  in 
part  due  to  the  greater  number  of  representatives  belonging  to  this 
order.  A  few  of  the  commonest  leaf  forms  are  shown  on  Plate  V. 
Other  intermediate  forms  are  commonly  found  among  our  trees.  The 
size-  of  the  leaves  varies  as  much  as  their  form.  They  may  be  small, 
scale-like,  or  awl-shaped  as  in  the  Arbor  Vitae  and  Common  Juniper 
respectively,  or  large  and  tropical-like  as  in  the  Magnolias  and 
Papaw. 

The  point,  or  apex,  of  leaves  varies  with  the  species  and  the  gen- 
eral leaf -form.  The  commonest  kinds  of  points  recognized  are 
shown  on  Plate  V. 

The  bases  of  leaves  are  also  often  characteristic  and  of  consider- 
able value  in  distinguishing  species,  since  different  species  may  have 
the  same  general  form  but  different  bases.  The  commonest  kinds 
of  bases  recognized  are  shown  on  Plate  V.  Intermediate  forms  may 


42 

readily  be  found,  since  leaves  taken  from  the  same  tree  or  branch 
often  show  a  wide  variation. 

The  margins  of  leaves  are  often  more  variable  than  their  apexes 
and  bases.  The  kinds  most  commonly  recognized  are  shown  on 
Plate  V.  The  figures  represent  the  margins  of  simple  leaves,  but 
the  margins  of  the  leaflets  of  compound  leaves  follow  the  same  ter- 
minology. 

Most  of  the  leaves  of  our  common  forest  trees  contain  a  rather 
complicated  system  of  fibro- vascular  bundles.  These  fibro-vascular 
bundles,  known  as  veins,  form  the  framework  of  the  leaves.  Sur- 
rounding and  between  these  veins  is  found  a  green  pulpy  mass,  the 
spongy  parenchyma.  The  whole  body  of  the  leaf  is  covered  by  a 
protective  covering  known  as  the  epidermis,  the  thickness  of  which 
varies  with  the  species  of  tree  and  the  climate. 

One  can  find  variations  in  the  petiole  and  stipules  of  leaves 
as  well  as  in  the  blade.  The  petiole  may  be  absent,  short,  or  long. 
When  the  petiole  is  absent  the  leaf-blade  is  sessile.  It  may  also  be 
enlarged  at  the  base,  circular,  heart-shaped,  flat,  or  triangular  in 
outline.  The  enlarged  base  may  be  hollow  or  clasping.  The  stipules 
are  usually  not  very  conspicuous.  In  many  species  they  persist  for 
a  short  time  only  and  then  fall  off.  The  main  function  of  the  stipules 
is  protection,  but  a  special  modification  of  the  stipules  is  seen  in  the 
Common  Locust  (Plate  XCVII),  where  the  thorns  are  modified  stip- 
ules and  function  as  mechanical  protectors. 

Leaves  are  the  most  industrious  organs  of  a  plant.  They  work 
day  and  night  from  early  spring  until  autumn.  The  four  chief  func- 
tions of  leaves  are:  (1)  Photosynthesis;  (2)  Eespiration;  (3) 
Transpiration,  and  (4),  Assimilation.  Photosynthesis  is  the  process 
by  which  the  leaf  manufactures  starch  or  sugar  from  carbon  dioxide 
and  water  with  the  aid  of  the  energy  of  light.  That  green  plants 
require  light  for  their  growth  and  development  is  shown  by  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  axis  and  their  leaves  adjust  themselves  so  as  to  re- 
ceive the  greatest  amount  of  light.  By  respiration  in  plants  is  meant 
the  process  by  which  oxygen  is  consumed  and  carbon  dioxide  and 
water  are  given  off.  It  is  primarily  a  process  of  oxidation  and  re- 
sembles in  general  the  process  of  respiration  as  found  in-  man  and 
higher  animals.  In  order  to  facilitate  this  exchange  of  gases  the 
plants  are  supplied  with  openings  on  the  leaf  surfaces,  especially  on 
the  lower  surface,  and  on  the  bark.  The  openings  on  the  leaf  sur- 
faces are  known  as  stomata  and  those  on  the  bark  as  lenticels.  Each 
slit-like  opening  on  the  leaf  is  surrounded  by  two  guard  cells  which 
are  somewhat  complicated  in  structure  and  very' sensitive  to  changes 
in  temperature  and  water  supply.  They  function  primarily  as 
breathing  pores  and  as  outlets  for  the  water  vapor  given  off  during 
the  process  of  transpiration.  Their  number  varies,  but  it  has  been 


PLATE  VI.     TYPES  OF  LEAF-SCARS  AND  BUNDLE-SCARS. 


1.  Tulip  Tree. 

2.  Catalpa. 

3.  American   Hornbeam. 

4.  Sassafras. 

5.  Persimmon. 

6.  Maple. 

7.  Poplar. 

8.  Red    Mulberry. 

9.  Button  wood. 

10.  Chestnut. 

11.  Walnut. 

All   drawings   are  slightly   enlarged 


12.  Basswood. 

13.  Birch. 

14.  Box  Elder. 

15.  Papaw. 

16.  Horse  Chestnut. 

17.  Dwarf  Sumach. 
17a.  Staghorn    Sumach. 

18.  Hercules'   Club. 

19.  Sour-wood. 

20.  Kentucky   Coffee  Tree. 

21.  Ash. 


PLATE  VII.     FLOWERS  AND  FLOWER  ARRANGEMENT. 


1.  White  Pine   (staminate  cluster),   x  J. 

2.  White   Pine    (2   pistillate),    x   J. 

3.  Willow   (staminate  ament),  x  i. 

4.  Willow    (pistillate   ament),    x  J. 

5.  Walnut  (staminate  ament) ,  x  i. 

6.  Walnut    (a    pistillate    flower),    enlarged. 

7.  Hickory    (staminate  ament),    x   J. 

8.  Hickory   (a  pistillate  flower),   natural  size. 

9.  Birch    (a  staminate  ament).    x  J. 

10.  Birch    (a   pistillate   ament),    x    J. 

11.  Beech    (a   staminate  head),    x   J. 


12.  Beech    (two   pistillate   flowers),    natural   size. 

13.  Chestnut    (a   staminate   ament),    x   \. 

14.  Chestnut    (a   pistillate    ament),    x    J. 

15.  White  Oak   (4  staminate  aments),   x  5. 

16.  White  Oak    (a  pistillate  flower),   enlarged. 

17.  Elm   (3  clusters  of  incomplete  flowers),   x  1. 

18.  Mulberry    (a   staminate   spike),    x    J. 

19.  Mulberry    (a   dense   pistillate   spike)',    x    J. 

20.  Tulip   Tree    (a   complete   flower),    x   j. 

21.  Papaw   (a  complete  flower),  x  J. 


43 

estimated  that  the  lower  leaf  surface  of  Black  Walnut  contains 
about  300,000  per  square  inch.  The  leaf  is  not  only  peculiarly  modi- 
fied for  the  reception  of  light  and  the  absorption  of  gases,  but  also 
for  the  loss  of  water.  This  process  of  losing  water  in  the  form  of 
vapor  through  the  stomata  is  known  as  transpiration.  The  large 
amount  of  water  given  off  by  trees  is  usually  not  appreciated.  The 
Austrian  Forest  Experiment  Station  has  published  data  which  show 
that  an  open-grown  birch  tree  with  200,000  leaves  transpired  on  hot 
summer  days  from  700  to  900  pounds.  Assimilation,  the  fourth  of 
the  functions  named  above,  comprises  a  series  of  changes  which  are 
necessary  to  transform  the  raw  or  newly  manufactured  food  material 
into  actual  plant  tissue. 

6.     LEAP-SCARS  AND  BUNDLE-SCARS: 

Most  of  our  trees  and  shrubs,  except  the  cone-bearers,  shed  prac- 
tically all  their  leaves  in  autumn.  Those  which  shed  their  leaves 
in  this  manner  are  known  as  deciduous  trees,  while  those  which  re- 
tain them  for  two  or  more  seasons  are  known  as  evergreen  trees. 
When  the  leaf  falls  a  scar  is  left  at  the  point  of  its  insertion.  The 
leaf-scars  vary  in  size,  form,  position,  occurrence,  and  the  number 
of  vascular  bundles  which  they  contain  (Plate  VI).  They  may  oc- 
cur singly,  in  pairs,  or  in  whorls,  just  as  the  leaves  which  precede 
them.  They  appear  at  points  on  the  twigs  known  as  nodes.  The 
portion  of  the  twig  between  the  nodes  is  called  the  internode.  They 
may  be  large,  medium,  or  small  in  size  depending  upon  the  species. 
If  they  occur  in  pairs  on  opposite  sides  of  the  twig  they  may  be  so 
large  that  they  completely  encircle  the  stem,  or  only  a  portion  of 
it.  Their  form  may  be  round,  oval,  elliptical,  heart-shaped,  shield- 
shaped,  crescent-shaped,  lobed,  or  triangular.  They  may  be  raised, 
depressed,  or  even  with  the  surface  of  the  twig.  Their  surface  may 
be  flat,  concave,  smooth,  or  wavy. 

The  leaf -scars  contain  bundle-scars.  The  bundle-scars  mark  the 
position  of  the  vascular  bundles  which  formed  a  connection  between 
the  leaves  and  the  twigs.  They  carry  liquid  material  to  and  from 
the  leaves.  Two  distinct  portions  may  be  distinguished  in  these 
vascular  bundles ;  the  woody  portion  which  serves  to  carry  water  into 
the  leaf,  and  the  sieve- tube  portion  which  serves  to  carry  plant  food 
from  the  leaves  where  it  was  manufactured,  down  into  the  twigs, 
branches,  and  stem.  These  bundle-scars  vary  in  size,  form,  and  num- 
ber in  a  leaf-scar,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  distributed. 
Some  of  our  common  forest  trees  have  only  one  bundle-scar  in  a  leaf- 
scar,  while  many  have  three,  and  others  four,  five,  to  many.  The 
number  is  constant  in  some  species  and  variable  in  others.  The  in- 
dividual bundle-scars  usually  are  circular  in  outline  but  may  be 
linear,  crescent-shaped,  or  irregular.  Where  more  than  one  is  found 


44 

in  a  leaf-scar  they  vary  in  their  arrangement.  They  may  form  a 
closed  ellipse,  a  lunate  line,  a  double  line,  a  V-shaped  or  a  U-shaped 
line,  or  they  may  be  irregularly  scattered  over  the  leaf-scar,  or 
grouped  in  clusters.  A  number  of  bundle-scars  may  sometimes  be 
grouped  so  close  together  so  as  to  form  a  compound  bundle-scar  or  a 
line  of  confluent  bundle-scars.  The  leaf-scars  together  with  their 
bundle-scars  are  excellent  characters  with  which  to  distinguish 
many  of  our  common  forest  trees  during  winter  when  most  of  the 
distinguishing  characteristics  which  one  can  use  in  summer  are  ab- 
sent. By  carefully  studying  these  characteristics,  together  with 
others,  it  is  as  easy  to  distinguish  the  forest  trees  in  winter  as  in 
summer  when  the  foliage  is  present. 

7.    FLOWERS  : 

Sometime  in  their  life  history  plants  usually  give  rise  to  others 
of  their  kind.  The  method  which  they  use  to  accomplish  this  varies 
with  the  species  or  the  group.  Most  of  our  trees  develop  flowers 
whose  chief  function  is  pollination,  the  initial  step  in  the  production 
of  seeds.  The  existence  of  flowers  is  consequently  for  the  good  of 
the  plant  and  not  for  the  good  of  man,  even  though  their  beautiful 
forms  and  colors  do  please  his  fancy  and  make  his  life  happier. 

The  flowers  of  our  common  trees  vary  considerably  in  form,  struc- 
ture, and  color  (Plates  VII,  VIII).  Most  of  them  are  very  modest 
in  appearance  while  a  few  of  them  are  conspicuous  on  account  of 
their  large  size  and  brilliant  color.  In  speaking  of  the  flowers  of 
our  trees  collectively,  one  often  hears  the  phrase  "The  uncommon 
flowers  of  our  common  trees."  The  truth  of  this  phrase  becomes 
clear  when  we  think  of  the  small  and  inconspicuous  pistillate  flowers 
which  such  trees  as  the  Oaks,  Birches,  American  Hop  Hornbeam, 
Walnuts,  Hickories,  and  .others  produce.  A  few  species  like  the 
Magnolias,  Cherries,  Dogwoods,  Tulip  Tree,  and  Basswood  produce 
rather  conspicuous  flowers. 

The  parts  of  a  flower  are  of  two  general  kinds — the  essential  organs 
which  are  concerned  in  the  production  of  seeds  and  the  floral  en- 
velopes which  act  as  protecting  organs.  The  essential  organs  con- 
sist of  two  series, — the  outer  which  is  composed  of  stamens  and 
bears  the  pollen,  and  the  inner  which  is  composed  of  pistils  and 
bears  the  seeds.  The  floral  envelopes  also  usually  consist  of  two 
series, — the  outer  which  is  composed  of  sepals,  collectively  known 
as  the  calyx,  and  the  inner  which  is  composed  of  petals,  collectively 
known  as  the  corolla.  The  corolla  is  usually  the  showy  part  of  a 
flower  while  the  calyx  is  usually  green  in  color.  A  flower 
which  has  calyx,  corolla,  stamens,  and  pistils  is  said  to  be 
complete.  If  any  part  is  wanting  it  is  incomplete.  When  both  the 
floral  envelopes  are  wanting  it  is  naked.  A  flower  in  which  the 
pistils  are  lacking  is  known  as  a  staminate  flower,  while  one  in 


PLATE  VIII.     TYPES   OF  FLOWERS. 

1.  Sweet  Gum    (staminate  heads),   x  J. 

2.  Sweet  Gum    (a  pistillate  head),    x  i. 

3.  Common  Locust  (a  drooping  raceme),  x  i. 

4.  Striped  Maple   (a  drooping  staminate  raceme),   x  J. 

5.  Striped    Maple    (a    drooping    pistillate    raceme),     x    5. 

6.  Red  Maple    (staminate  fascicles),    x   J. 

7.  Red  Maple    (pistillate  fascicles),   x  J. 

8.  Basswood    (a  drooping  cyme),    x   J. 

9.  Flowering   Dogwood    (a    dense   cluster),    x    J. 

10.  White  Ash    (a  staminate  panicle),    x   i. 

11.  White   Ash    (a   pistillate   panicle),    x   J. 

12.  Rhododendron   (a  single  flower),   x  i. 

13.  Wild  Black  Cherry   (a  raceme),   x  |. 

14.  Buttonwood    (a  head),   x  |. 


14 


PLATE  IX.     TYPES  OF  FRUIT. 


1.  White   Pine    (cone),    x  1. 

2.  White   Pine    (winged   seed),    natural   size. 

3.  Willow    (capsules),   x  J. 

4.  Willow  (a  winged  seed),  enlarged. 

5.  Trembling  Aspen    (capsules),    x  J. 

€.  Trembling  Aspen    (a  winged  seed),   enlarged. 
7.  Black  Walnut  (a  nut  with  indehiscent  husk), 

x  i. 

S.  Hickory  (a  nut  with  dehiscent  husk),  x  J. 
S.  American     Hornbeam     (a     nut     with     3  lobed 

bract),  x  }. 


10.  American  Hop  Hornbeam    (a  nut  inclosed  in 

bladder-like  bract),  x  1. 

11.  Black   Birch    (a   membranous   strobile),    x   i. 

12.  Black  Alder  (a  woody  strobile),  x  J. 

13.  Beech    (a    nut   with    prickly    bur),    x    i. 

14.  Chestnut    (a  nut  with  spiny  bur),    x   1. 

15.  R«d  Oak    (an  immature  acorn),   x  i. 

16.  Red  Oak   (a  mature  acorn),  x  j. 

17.  Red  Mulberry   (an  aggregate  fruit ».    «   i 


45 

which  the  stamens  are  lacking  is  known  as  a  pistillate  flower.  Some- 
times the  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  are  not  only  found  on  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  same  tree  but  on  entirely  different  trees. 

The  chief  role  of  flowers  is  pollination.  Pollination  is  the  transfer 
of  pollen  from  the  anther  of  the  stamen  to  the  stigma  of  the  pistil. 
When  pollen  is  transferred  from  the  anthers  to  the  stigma  of  tin- 
same  flower  it  is  known  as  close-pollination,  and  when  pollen  is  trans- 
ferred from  the  anthers  of  a  flower  of  one  plant  to  the  pistil  of  a 
flower  of  another  it  is  known  as  cross-pollination.  Wind  and  in- 
sects are  the  chief  agents  which  carry  the  pollen  in  the  case  of  cross- 
pollination.  The  flowers  of  the  Tulip  Tree,  Papaw,  and  Cherries,  are 
examples  in  which  close-pollination  can  take  place,  while  the  flowers 
of  the  Willows  and  Poplars  are  good  examples  in  which  cross-polli- 
nation takes  place.  When  the  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  are 
on  the  same  plants  e.  g.  Oaks,  American  Hop  Hornbeam,  Beech, 
Chestnut,  Hickories,  and  Walnuts,  the  plants  are  known  as 
monoecious  and  when  they  are  on  different  plants  as  in  the  Willows, 
Poplars,  and  occasionally  some  Maples,  they  are  known  as  dioecious. 

Flowers  vary  not  only  in  the  size,  form,  shape  of  their  parts,  and 
color,  but  also  in  their  arrangement.  In  a  few  cases  the  flowers 
of  trees  like  the  Tulip  Tree  and  Papaw  are  borne  singly  and  known  as 
solitary  flowers.  The  flowers  may  also  be  arranged  in  clusters  like 
that  of  the  Lily  of  the  Valley  or  the  Wild  Black  Cherry  (Plate  VIII, 
13).  Such  an  inflorescence  is  known  as  a  raceme.  A  raceme  may  be 
compact  as  in  the  Wild  Black  Cherry;  or  loose  as  in  the  Common 
Locust  (Plate  VIII,  3)  and  the  Striped  Maple  (Plate  VIII,  4-5). 
When  the  flower  cluster  is  dense  and  the  flowers  sessile,  or  nearly 
so,  it  is  known  as  a  spike.  Spikes  may  be  2-5-flowered  as  in  the 
pistillate  flowers  of  the  Hickory  (Plate  VII,  8),  or  densely  flowered 
as  in  the  staminate  flowers  of  the  Mulberry  (Plate  VII,  18).  A 
very  short  and  dense  spike  is  known  as  a  head  (Plate  VIII,  14).  A 
spike  is  sometimes  short,  flexible,  and  rather  scaly  as  in  the  Willows, 
Poplars,  and  rather  long  as  in  the  staminate  flowers  of  the  Oaks, 
Hickories,  Birches,  and  Alders  (Plate  VII,  7,  9  and  15).  Such  a 
spike  is  known  as  an  ament  or  catkin.  Other  types  of  inflorescence 
are  the  umbels  (Plate  LXXXVII),  panicles  (Plate  VIII,  10-11),  and 
corymbs. 

The  time  at  which  the  flowers  appear  and  their  duration  varies 
with  the  species.  The  Alders,  Hazlenut,  and  some  Maples  produce 
their  flowers  early  in  spring  before  the  leaves  are  out.  Others  pro- 
duce them  with  the  leaves,  while  still  others  produce  them  after  the 
leaves.  The  Witch-hazel  produces  its  flowers  late  in  fall.  It  is  the 
last  of  our  trees  to  blossom. 


46 

8.     FRUIT  : 

Sometime  after  pollination  the  egg  cell  or  ovule  is  fertilized,  and 
as  a  result  of  fertilization,  the  ovule,  together  with  the  surround- 
ing ovary,  enlarges.  The  enlarged  ovules,  together  with  inclosing 
ovary,  form  what  is  termed  the  fruit.  The  fruit  may  in  addition 
comprise  modifications  of  other  organs  intimately  connected  with 
the  ovary. 

Seeds  are  products  of  the  flower  and  are  usually  regarded  as 
reproductive  organs,  but  in  reality  they  are  the  result  of  reproduc- 
tion. Their  chief  work  is  the  dissemination  and  the  protection  of  the 
offspring  of  reproduction.  They  are  usually  covered  by  hard  and 
impermeable  coats  which  protect  the  young  plant  contained  within 
from  the  many  dangers  with  which  it  is  beset.  Nature  tries  to 
guard  against  these  dangers  by  developing  suitable  protective  cover- 
ings for  each  species.  Nature,  however,  is  not  always  satisfied  by 
simply  developing  a  thick  and  impermeable  coat,  but  in  addition  it 
develops  an  internal  tissue  which  is  compact  and  contains  little 
water.  If  a  seed  possess  these  essentials  it  is  well  protected  against 
most  of  the  destructive  agencies  to  which  it  is  exposed.  The  chief 
dangers  to  which  seeds  are  subject  are  premature  germination,  loss 
of  vitality,  and  destruction  by  animals.  Each  seed  usually  has  a 
suitable  covering  which  regulates  the  germination  in  spring.  This 
regulation  is  necessary  so  as  not  to  allow  the  tender  plant  to  emerge 
before  the  external  growth  conditions  are  favorable  for  its  develop- 
ment. An  embryo  within  a  thin-coated  seed  would  often  be  stimu- 
lated by  a  few  warm  days  in  spring  with  the  consequence  that  the 
resulting  tender  plants  would  be  killed  by  later  frost.  Nature  acts 
as  a  guardian  and  places  a  thick  coat  around  such  embryos,  and  as 
a  result  they  are  not  stimulated  until  later  when  frost  danger  is 
past. 

Food  is  stored  in  various  plant  organs  such  as  roots,  stem,  and 
branches,  and  is  usually  most  abundant  and  conspicuous  in  the 
seeds.  It  occurs  in  various  forms  and  may  often  differ  in  composi- 
tion. Food  stored  in  the  seed  is  very  valuable  because  it  supplies 
nourishment  to  the  small  and  tender  plants  before  they  have  de- 
veloped the  roots  with  which  they  draw  nourishment  from  the  soil 
and  supply  water  to  the  leaves  where  starch  and  sugar  are  manu- 
factured. Primitive  man  obtained  considerable  food  from  the  seeds 
of  trees,  and  present  man  derives  certain  foods  for  himself  and  his 
animals  from  some  of  our  common  trees.  The  food  value  of  seeds 
varies  with  the  species.  Some  species  like  the  Willows  contain  very 
little  food,  while  others  like  the  Chestnut  are  rich  in  food. 

The  time  at  which  the  fruit  matures  varies  with  the  species.  Wil- 
lows, Poplars,  and  Elms  mature  their  fruits  in  spring;  others,  like 


PLATE  X.     TYPES  OF  FRUIT. 

1.  Osage  Orange    (a  compound  drupe),   x  i. 

2.  Hackberry    (a   drupe),    x   i. 

3.  American  Elm   (one-seeded  samara),  x  J. 

4.  Tulip   Tree    (a   light   brown    cone   composed   of    many    carpels),    x    i. 

5.  Papaw    (a   fleshy   or   pulpy   fruit),    x   \. 

6.  Sugar  Maple    (paired  samara),   x  \. 
1.  Wild  Black  Cherry   (a  drupe),   x  J. 

8.  Basswood    (a  nut-like  drupe),   x  J. 

9.  Sweet   Gum    (multicapsular   head),    x   |. 

10.  Persimmon    (a  juicy  berry),   x  J. 

11.  White  Ash    (samaras),   x  I. 

12.  Buttonwood    (a   head),    x  J. 


PLATE  XI.     THE  STRUCTURE  OF  WOOD. 

1.  Gross  section  of  six-year  old  stem  of  White  Pine  showing   (b)   bark,    (c)    cambium,    (ar)   annual 

ring,    (p)    pith,    and    (rp)    numerous   small   circular   resin   passages,    natural   size. 

2.  A   resin  passage  with  bounding  epithelial   cells,    enlarged. 

"3.  Non-porous  wood  of  White  Pine  showing    (spw)    spring  wood,    (sw)    summer  wood,    (ar)    annual 
ring,  and  (rp)  resin  passage,  x  3. 

4.  Ring-porous  wood  of  Chestnut,   x   2. 

5.  Ring-porous  wood  of  Red   Oak,    showing   large  medullary   rays,    x   3. 
•6.  Diffuse-porous  wood  of  Beech,  x  4. 

7.  Block  of  Chestnut  wood  showing   (cs)   cross  section,    (rs)   radial  section,    (ts)   tangential  section, 
(spw)    spring  wood,    and    (sw)    summer   wood,    natural   size. 


47 

the  Cherries,  Mulberries,  and  some  Maples,  in  summer;  but  most 
of  them,  like  the  Oaks,  Chestnut,  Pines,  and  others,  in  autumn.  The 
seeds  of  some  species  like  the  Willows  die  unless  they  germinate 
soon  after  they  mature.  Most  species  retain  their  capacity  to 
germinate  for  several  months  or  several  years,  while  a  few  members 
of  the  Pulse  family  are  reported  to  retain  their  vitality  for  more 
than  125  years. 

The  mature  fruit  and  seeds  of  our  common  trees  show  a  wide 
variation  in  their  form  and  structure.  Fruits  are  usually  classified 
on  the  basis  of  their  texture,  as  fleshy  fruits  and  dry  fruits.  Fleshy 
fruits  are  represented  by  the  fruits  of  such  species  as  Cherries, 
Papaw,  Osage  Orange,  etc.  (Plate  X,  1,  2,  5,  7,  10).  Dry  fruits 
are  those  which  do  not  have  any  flesh  or  pulp,  and  are  represented 
by  the  fruits  of  such  species  as  the  Maples,  Ashes,  and  Oaks  (Plate 
IX,  1-16,  and  Plate  X,  3,  4,  6,  8,  9,  11,  12).  Fleshy  fruits  including 
the  stone  fruits,  are  indehiscent.  Indehiscent  fruits  (Plate  X,  1,  2, 
5,  7,  10)  are  those  which  do  not  split  apart  regularly  along  certain 
lines  for  the  liberation  of  the  seeds,  while  dehiscent  fruits  do  split 
open.  Dry  fruits  may  be  indehiscent  or  dehiscent. 

The  following  general  types  of  fruits  are  commonly  recognized: 
the  pome  (Plate  XCII),  the  drupe  (Plate  X,  7, 10),  the  nut  (Plate  IX, 
7,  8,  9,  14,  15),  the  samara  (Plate  X,  3,  6,  11),  the  follicle  (Plates 
LXXVI-LXXVIII),  the  capsule  (Plate  IX,  3,  5)  and  (Plate  X,  9), 
the  legume  (Plates  XCIV-XCVII),  the  cone  (Plate  IX,  1)  and  the 
collective  or  aggregate  fruits,  (Plate  IX,  17).  The  species  belonging 
to  a  single  genus  usually  produce  a  common  type  of  fruit,  but  genera 
belonging  to  the  same  family  often  have  an  entirely  different  kind 
of  fruit.  This  difference  of  fruit  of  genera  in  the  same  family  is 
shown  very  clearly  in  the  Nettle  family,  to  which  belong  the  Elms, 
Hackberry,  Osage  Orange,  and  Mulberry,  whose  fruit  are  shown  on 
Plate  X,  3,  2,  1,  and  Plate  IX,  17.  A  wide  variation  may  also  occur 
within  the  general  types  mentioned  above.  The  nut  is  one  of  the 
commonest  types  of  fruit  found  in  the  forest  and  will  possibly 
show  this  wide  variation  best.  Nuts  may  be  small  and  light,  as  in 
the  Buttonwood  and  Birches,  or  large  and  heavy  as  in  the  Oaks  and 
Chestnut.  Light  nuts  often  have  appendages  attached  to  them  in 
the  form  of  a  membranous  wing  or  a  tuft  of  hairs.  The  nuts  may 
be  produced  singly  or  in  strobiles  as  in  the  Birches  and  Alder. 
They  may  also  be  covered  or  naked.  If  covered,  the  covering  may  be 
indehiscent  and  semi-fleshy  (Plate  IX,  7),  or  dehiscent  and  dry 
(Plate  IX,  8).  It  may  also  consist  of  a  stalked  prickly  dehiscent 
bur  (Plate  IX,  13),  a  large  spiny  dehiscent  bur  (Plate  IX,  14),  a 
bladder-like  bag  (Plate  IX,  10)  or  a  leafy  involucre,  as  in  the  Com- 
mon Hazlenuts  (Plate  LI).  In  some  species  the  seeds  are  not  cov- 
ered entirely  but  simply  subtended  by  a  leafy  bract  (Plate  IX,  9). 


48 

In  the  Birches  aiid  Alder  the  small  winged  nuts  are  produced  on  3- 
lobed  bracts  which  are  so  arranged  that  they  form  a  cone-like  fruit- 
ing body  known  as  a  strobile.  It  is  rather  hard  to  classify  the  fruits 
of  some  species  in  terms  of  the  types  enumerated  above,  e.  g.,  the 
fruit  of  the  Basswood  has  the  appearance  of  a  nut,  but  is  in  reality 
a  drupe;  while  the  fruit  of  both  the  Mountain  Ash  and  the  Shad 
Bush  has  the  appearance  of  a  berry  but  is  actually  a  pome.  A  super- 
ficial examination  is  often  not  sufficient  to  determine  the  type  of 
fruit.  The  fruit  of  our  common  Sumachs  is  a  drupe,  but  is  usually 
covered  with  acid  hairs,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  recognize  the  type 
of  fruit  to  which  it  belongs. 

After  the  fruits  and  seeds  have  been  produced,  it  is  necessary  that 
they  be  scattered  on  a  mineral  soil  upon  which  they  may  germinate. 
The  distance  over  which  they  are  scattered  may  be  short  or  long, 
depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  seeds  and  the  agents  by  which  they 
are  dispersed.  The  fruit,  as  a  whole,  is  usually  scattered  in  the  case 
of  indehiscent  fruits,  while  the  seeds  only  are  scattered  in  the  case 
of  dehiscent  fruits.  The  drawings  on  Plates  IX  and  X  show  various 
structural  modifications  of  fruits  and  seeds  which  aid  in  their  dis- 
persal. The  chief  dispersal  agents  are  propulsion,  man,  animals, 
water,  wind,  and  gravity.  The  Witch-hazel  (Plate  LXXXII),  is  a 
good  example  of  a  species  whose  seeds  are  scattered  by  mechanical 
propulsion.  Man  has  been  distributing  seeds  for  forest  trees  inten- 
tionally or  unintentionally  for  many  centuries,  with  the  result  that 
the  forest  structure  and  landscape  in  many  localities  have  been  en- 
tirely changed.  Many  European  and  Asiatic  species  have  been 
planted  in  America,  and  many  of  our  native  species  like  the  Common 
Locust  and  White  Pine  have  a  wide  distribution  abroad.  Wind  is 
the  most  powerful  of  the  dispersal  agents.  Many  seeds  have  special 
structural  modifications  which  adapt  them  to  be  scattered  by  the 
wind.  The  modifications  may  be  a  sac-like  envelope  (Plate  IX,  10), 
a  mat  of  straight  capillary  hairs  (Plate  IX,  4,  6)  or  a  membranous 
winged,  or  flattened  seed  (Plate  IX,  2  and  Plate  X,  3,  6,  11).  Ani- 
mals also  scatter  many  seeds.  A  great  number  are  scattered  involun- 
tarily by  animals,  especially  such  seeds  as  will  hang  fast  to  their 
bodies.  Other  fruits  are  juicy  and  edible  and  are  often  eaten  by 
birds  and  other  animals.  A  large  number  of  our  common  birds  swal- 
low seeds  to  get  the  juicy  edible  portion  surrounding  them.  These 
seeds  are  not  injured  in  passing  through  the  alimentary  canal  of 
birds,  but  in  some  cases  it  is  thought  that  the  seeds  are  even  bene- 
fited. The  robins,  thrushes,  and  blue  birds  eat  a  large  quantity  of 
fleshy  fruit  and  should  be  regarded  as  valuable  agents  for  dispersing 
seeds.  The  blue  jay  is  also  an  agent  that  helps  to  scatter  heavy 
seeds  like  chestnuts  and  acorns.  Other  animals,  especially  rodents, 
are  also  valuable  as  seed  dispersal  agents.  Water,  while  not  so 


49 

important  as  wind,  must  still  be  regarded  as  an  agent  of  seed  dis- 
persal. It  transports  some  seeds  over  great  distances,  especially 
those  which  will  float  or  are  inclosed  in  bladder-like  inclosures  like 
the  American  Hop  Hornbeam  (Plate  IX,  10),  or  the  Bladder  Nut,  a 
small  shrub  very  commonly  found  along  our  streams.  Gravity  on 
slopes,  is  a  minor  agent  of  seed  dispersal,  but  sometimes  does  effective 
work,  especially  with  heavy  seeded  species  like  Oak  and  Beech. 

9.     WOOD  : 

Wood,  next  to  food,  and  clothing,  is  probably  the  most  useful  and 
indispensable  material  which  man  uses.  It  is  found  in  many  of  the 
higher  plants  but  becomes  of  commercial  importance  only  in  the  sper- 
matophytes  or  seed-bearing  plants.  In  the  timber-producing  trees  it 
is  found  in  the  roots,  branches,  and  stems.  The  wood  derived  from 
the  roots  is  limited  in  quantity  and  inferior  in  quality.  The  branches 
produce  wood  which,  in  some  respects, -very  closely  resembles  that  of 
the  stem,  but  is  inferior  on  account  of  its  smaller  size,  irregular  shape, 
and  more  knotty  structure.  The  wood  obtained  from  the  stem  is  of 
the  greatest  utility  and  value  on  account  of  its  desirable  dimensions 
and  satisfactory  structure.  The  stem  should  not  only  yield-  a  large 
quantity  of  wood  but  also  a  superior  quality.  The  quality  of  wood 
which  a  stem  will  yield  depends  largely  upon  its  age,  inherent  ten- 
dencies of  the  species,  and  its  environment  during  its  development. 
High  grade  material  is  usually  obtained  from  the  stems  of  valuable 
species  which  have  attained  a  large  size,  are  free  from  lateral 
branches,  and  possess  little  stem  taper.  The  form  and  character  of 
the  stem  are  dependent  on  the  environment.  A  suitable  environment 
may  be  created  by  applying  the  fundamental  principles  of  forestry 
which  will  not  only  increase  the  productivity  of  our  forests  but  also 
the  quality  of  the  yield. 

In  order  to  identify  the  different  kinds  of  woods  it  is  necessary 
to  study  them  from  the  following  three  sections:  cross,  radial,  and 
tangential  (Plate  XI,  7).  An  examination  of  a  cross-section  of  a 
woody  stem  will  show  that  the  major  part  of  the  structure  consists 
of  wood  which  is  covered  with  bark  on  the  outside  and  has  a  narrow 
cylinder  of  soft  tissue  known  as  pith  running  through  the  center 
(Plate  XI,  1). 

The  woody  portion  of  most  of  our  trees,  especially  the  older  ones, 
may  be  differentiated  into  two  parts  on  the  basis  of  colors.  The 
central  colored  part  is  known  as  the  Jieartwood,  while  the  outer  al- 
most colorless  part  is  known  as  the  sapwood.  A  narrow  zone  of  cells 
located  between  the  sapwood  and  the  bark  is  known  as  the  cambium 
(Plate  XI,  1).  All  the  wood  elements  have  their  origin  in  this  zone. 
For  sometime  after  their  origin  these  elements  are  living,  but  later 


50 

they  become  functionless  and  die.  The  sapwood  comprises  the 
peripheral  zone  of  wood  which  lies  next  to  the  cambium  and  contains 
the  only  living  elements  of  the  wood.  The  heartwood  comprises  all 
the  wood  inside  of  this  zone.  The  elements  of  the  latter  are  dead 
and  usually  dark  in  color.  The  line  of  demarcation  between  the 
two  regions  is  usually  sharp.  The  width  of  the  sapwood  is  variable. 
In  some  species  like  Sassafras  it  is  very  narrow,  while  in  other 
species  like  Hickory  it  is  wide.  The  depth  of  color  of  the  heartwood 
is  also  variable.  In  some  species  like  Persimmon  it  is  very  dark 
in  color  while  in  other  species  like  Hemlock  there  is  very  little  dif- 
ference in  color  between  the  heartwood  and  sapwood. 

The  cross-section  also  shows  that  the  wood  is  divided  into  numer- 
ous concentric  zones  or  rings.  These  are  known  as  annual  rings 
since  each  one  usually  represents  the  growth  of  a  season  (Plate  XI, 
1,  3).  Certain  disturbances  like  frost,  drought,  and  insect  damage 
may  cause  the  formation  of  a  second  ring  in  the  same  season.  These 
rings  are  known  as  false  or  fictitious  growth  rings.  Growth  rings 
have  a  physiological  origin.  They  represent  alternating  periods  of 
rest  and  activity,  and  occur  in  practically  all  trees  of  the  temperate 
region,  characterized  by  an  active  vegetative  period  in  summer  and  a 
resting  period  in  winter.  As  one  approaches  the  equator  the  growth 
rings  disappear,  since  the  seasonal  changes  are  not  so  sharp.  Each 
growth  ring  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  the  inner,  called  early 
or  spring  wood,  and  the  outer,  called  late  or  summer  wood  (Plate 
XI,  3). 

The  cross-section  further  shows  radial  lines  crossing  the  growth 
rings  at  right  angles.  These  are  known  as  medullary  or  pith  rays, 
or  simply  as  rays.  A  few  of  them  originate  in  the  pith  and  extend 
through  the  wood  into  the  bark.  Such  are  known  as  primary  rays. 
As  the  stem  increases  in  size  additional  rays  are  necessary.  These 
originate  in  the  wood,  extend  into  the  bark  and  are  known  as  sec- 
ondary rays.  The  rays  are  very  valuable  in  distinguishing  the  wood 
of  many  of  our  common  trees  since  the  different  woods  possess  rays 
which  vary  in  height,  width,  and  structure.  The  very  wide  rays  of 
the  Oaks  enable  one  to  distinguish  their  wood  from  that  of  all  other 
species.  These  large  rays  are  a  valuable  asset  to  Oak  wood  since 
they  give  rise  to  the  beautiful  figure  which  one  finds  on  some  oak 
furniture  and  interior  finishings.  The  best  figure  is  obtained  by 
quarter-sawing  i.  e.  cutting  it  radially. 

The  end  of  a  freshly  cut  log  of  pine  is  often  covered  with  small 
drops  of  resin,  which  were  given  forth  from  small  openings  in  the 
wood.  These  openings  are  known  as  resin  ducts  (Plate  XI,  1,  2). 
They  are  long  intercellular  channels  bounded  by  a  layer  of  epithelial 
cells.  Their  presence  in  the  wood. of  the  Pines,  Larches,  and  Spruces 
enables  one  to  distinguish  them  from  all  other  trees.  Injury  may 


51 

sbmetimes  stimulate  the  formation  of  abnormal  resin  ducts  in  woods 
in  which  they  do  not  occur  normally. 

In  some  woods  elements  occur,  known  as  vessels,  which  facilitate 
the  transportation  of  water  in  the  stem.  Their  presence  or  absence 
and  their  structure  and  distribution  are  among  the  most  valuable 
characteristics  in  classifying  woods.  On  the  basis  of  porosity  one 
may  divide  the  woods  into  three  classes,  viz:  (1)  Ring-porous  or 
Unequal  Pored,  (2)  Diffuse-porous  or  Equal  Pored,  and  (3)  Non- 
porous.  Chestnut  and  Oak  wood  are  excellent  examples  of  the  ring- 
porous  class  (Plate  XI,  4,  5).  A  zone  of  large  pores  is  found  in  the 
early  wood  and  smaller  pores  in  the  late  wood.  Maple  and  Beech  are 
common  examples  of  the  diffuse-porous  class  (Plate  XI,  6).  The 
pores  of  this  class  are  approximately  of  the  same  size  and  distributed 
uniformly  throughout  the  growth  ring.  Pine  and  Hemlock  are  com- 
mon examples  of  the  non-porous  class  in  which  pores  are  entirely 
absent.  (Plate  XI,  3).  The  wood  of  this  class  is  also  classified  as 
Homogeneous,  while  that  with  pores  is  classified  as  Heterogeneous. 

The  various  woods  possess  other  characteristics  which  are  valu- 
able in  distinguishing  them  and  in  using  them  in  the  arts.  The 
wood  of  the  different  species  varies  almost  as  widely  as  do  their  flow- 
ers, fruits,  and  leaves,  especially  with  reference  to  grain,  weight, 
hardness,  color,  gloss,  smell,  shrinkage,  durability,  penetrability,  etc. 
These  variable  properties  and  the  manifold  uses  to  which  the  different 
woods  are  put  are  discussed  under  each  species. 


(52) 


PART  II. 


MANUAL  OF  PENNSYLVANIA  TREES. 

The  Identification,  Tabulation,  and  Description  of  Species. 


(54) 


MANUAL  OF  PENNSYLVANIA  TREES. 


IDENTIFICATION    OP    SPECIES. 

NAMES  OF  TREES: 

Trees  have  two  kinds  of  names,  common  and  scientific.  Some 
species  of  trees  have  only  one  common  name  while  others  may  have 
as  many  as  thirty.  The  same  species  of  tree  may  have  one  common 
name  in  one  locality  and  an  entirely  different  one  in  another  locality. 
The  Pitch  Pine  described  on  page  71  is  known  in  some  parts  of  this 
State  as  Jack  Pine  and  in  other  parts  as  Nigger  Pine.  The  common 
name  given  at  the  top  of  each  descriptive  page  is  the  proper  common 
name  and  the  one  used  throughout  this  publication  for  that  particular 
species.  Under  the  heading  "Distinguishing  Characteristics,"  other 
common  names  are  given. 

Since  Linnaeus  published  his  "Species  Plantarum"  in  1753, 
plants  have  been  known  by  scientific  names.  These  names,  as  a  rule, 
consist  of  two  parts,  the  generic  and  the  specific,  as  is  shown  by  the 
following  species  of  trees: —  Pinus  Strobus,  Quercus  alba,  Fraxinus 
americana,  Acer  rubrum.  The  first  or  generic  part  refers  to  the 
genus  and  corresponds  to  a  surname.  The  second  or  specific  part  re- 
fers not  to  a  group  of  plants  but  to  a  particular  kind  and  corre- 
sponds to  the  Christian  name  of  a  man.  The  White  Pine,  Red  Pine, 
and  Pitch  Pine  are  different  kinds  of  pines.  They  belong  to  the 
same  genus  or  group  and  hence  have  the  same  generic  name,  Pinus. 
Each  one,  however,  is  designated  by  a  different  specific  name.  For 
example,  the  White  Pine  is  known  as  Pinus  Strobus,  the  Red  Pine 
as  Pinus  resinosa,  and  the  Pitch  Pine  as  Pinus  rigida.  Closely  re- 
lated species  are  placed  in  the  same  genus  and  closely  related  genera 
(plural  of  genus)  in  the  same  family.  Such  closely  related  trees 
as  the  Pines,  Spruces,  Firs,  and  Larches,  are  placed  in  the  Pine 
family— Pinaceae. 

At  the  time  when  plants  first  were  studied  seriously  the  Latin 
language  was  the  one  used  most  commonly  to  preserve  knowledge. 
The  plants  consequently  were  given  Latin  names.  The  giving  of 
Latin  names  to  plants  and  animals  has  continued  down  to  the 
present  time  and  no  doubt  will  continue.  In  the  Latin  language  one 
finds  that  plant-names  have  gender,  and  that  the  termination  differs 


(55) 


56 

in  each  gender.  The  specific  part  of  the  name  must  agree  in  gender 
with  the  generic  part.  The  generic  name  Quercus  is  feminine,  hence 
the  Red  Oak  is  known  as  Quercus  rubra  while  the  generic  name  Acer 
is  neuter,  hence  the  Red  Maple  is  known  as  Acer  rub  rum. 

The  scientific  names  used  in  this  publication  are  those  found  in 
the  Seventh  Edition  of  Gray's  Manual  of  Botany,  and  are  in  keeping 
with  the  rules  of  nomenclature  laid  down  at  a  Congress  in  Vienna.  On 
account  of  the  present  unsettled  condition  of  our  nomenclature  it  is 
often  possible  to  find  a  certain  species  designated  by  two  or  more  dif- 
ferent scientific  names,  e.  g.,  the  Scrub  or  Bear  Oak  is  known  as 
Quercus  ilicifolia,  Wang.;  Quercus  nana,  Sarg.;  or  Quercus  pumila, 
Sudw.  The  authorized  scientific  name  is  given  at  the  top  of  each 
descriptive  page,  and  where  other  scientific  names  are  in  common  use, 
they  are  given  as  synonyms  just  below  the  authorized  one  or  in 
the  description. 

The  mere  knowledge  of  the  names  of  trees  is  of  little  value  or 
satisfaction.  The  name  is  simply  a  means  by  which  to  come  nearer 
to  the  plant.  Learning  the  names  of  trees  serves  about  the  same 
purpose  as  learning  the  names  of  persons.  It  is  merely  an  introduc- 
tion which  allows  us,  in  fact  often  stimulates  us,  to  become  more 
intimately  acquainted  with  their  life-processes,  associations,  en- 
vironments, and  commercial  importance. 

EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS  AND  HEADINGS: 

Some  readers  no  doubt  will  find  terms  in  this  publication  whose 
meaning  they  do  not  know.  Some  of  the  terms  have  been  discussed 
at  length  in  Part  I  while  others  will  be  defined  in  a  glossary  follow- 
ing the  description  of  the  species.  The  description  of  the  species  of 
trees  contained  in  this  publication  is  subdivided  into  a  number  of 
headings.  Most  of  these  headings  are  discussed  at  length  in  Part  I. 
The  significance  and  scope  of  those  headings  not  discussed  in  Part 
1  will  follow  at  this  point.  Under  the  several  headings  is  given  such 
descriptive  material  which  will  be  of  value  not  only  to  the  student 
of  Dendrology  but  also  to  the  layman  who  may  know  little  concern- 
ing the  characters  and  habits  of  trees.  The  headings  have  been  so 
selected  and  treated  that  one  should  be  able  to  identify  our  com- 
mon trees  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

Under  the  heading  "Distinguishing  Characteristics"  aj*e  given 
both  general  and  specific  characteristics  by  which  the  species  can  be 
recognized.  The  species  are  usually  compared  with  other  rather 
closely  related  ones  with  whicK  they  might  be  confused.  The  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics  and  comparisons  are  based  upon  the  trees 
native  to  Pennsylvania,  and  consequently  do  not  embrace  other 
closely  related  species  found  outside  of  the  State. 


57 

The  headings  "Range"  and  "Distribution  in  Pennsylvania"  are 
often  of  special  importance  on  account  of  their  identificational  value. 
Many  species  of  trees  have  a  limit  to  their  geographical  distribution 
in  this  State,  and  by  knowing  this  accurately  one  is  often  able  to 
identify  a  species  by  the  process  of  elimination.  The  Sweet  Buckeye 
and  Fetid  Buckeye  are  found  only  in  a  few  counties  in  the  western 
part  of  the  State.  The  Red  Pine  and  Paper  Birch  are  found  only 
in  the  northern  part,  while  the  White  Cedar  is  found  only  in  a  few 
counties  in  the  extreme  southeastern  part  of  the  State.  If  one  finds 
a  birch  tree  growing  in  the  forest  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State, 
he  can  feel  certain  that  it  is  not  Paper  Birch,  because  this  is  beyond 
the  southern  limit  of  this  species.  A  coniferous  tree  growing  wild 
on  the  top  of  the  South  Mountains  in  Franklin  county,  Pennsylvania, 
must  be  a  Pine,  Hemlock,  or  Red  Cedar,  because  no  other  coniferous 
trees  grow  there.  Further  we  know  that  it  cannot  be  the  Red  Pine, 
because  this  species  does  not  extend  so  far  south  in  the  State,  and 
on  the  basis  of  habitat  we  can  also  be  reasonably  sure  that  it  is  not 
the  Yellow  Pine,  the  Jersey  or  Scrub  Pine,  nor  the  Hemlock,  because 
they  very  seldom  ascend  to  the  tops  of  the  mountains,  but  usually  re- 
main at  lower  elevations.  Likewise,  if  a  maple  tree  is  found  at  the 
same  place  we  know  that  it  is  the  Red  Maple  or  Mountain  Maple 
because  they  are  the  only  Maples  found  in  that  particular  locality. 
If  Magnolia  trees  are  found  in  Centre  county  one  can  be  certain  tha  t 
the  species  is  not  Laurel  Magnolia,  (Magnolia  virginiana),  because 
this  species  has  its  western  limit  of  geographical  distribution  at 
Caledonia,  near  Chambersburg,  Franklin  county.  The  habitat  also 
aids  considerably  in  identifying  various  species.  A  birch  tree  found 
growing  upon  a  mountain  slope  or  mountain  top  is  rarely  the  River 
Birch,  because  the  latter  usually  frequents  moist  locations  like 
banks  of  streams  and  lakes.  Chemical  composition  of  the  soil  also 
influences  distribution.  A  soil  rich  in  lime  seldom  has  Chestnut 
growing  upon  it,  at  least  in  stands,  while  other  species  seem  to 
thrive  upon  such  soil.  No  doubt  at  least  99%  of  the  Cumberland 
Valley  in  this  State  was  originally  timbered  with  a  heavy  forest,  but 
very  little  of  it  was  Chestnut,  while  on  the  adjoining  mountain  slopes 
of  both  the  South  and  North  Mountains,  Chestnut  is  the  prevailing 
species.  Just  as  the  Chestnut  is  essentially  a  tree  of  the  slopes  so 
the  White  Oak  is  essentially  one  of  the  bottom  lands,  and  Table 
Mountain  Pine  of  the  mountain  tops. 

The  heading  "Importance  of  the  Species"  was  introduced  simply 
to  give  general  information  concerning  the  forestal  significance  of 
the  species  and  their  adaptability  for  ornamental  purposes.  This 
heading  is  especially  important  when  we  realize  that  of  the  more 
than  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  species  of  trees  found  in  this  State, 


58 

fewer  than  twenty-five  are  important  for  timber-producing  purposes. 
Many  inferior  species  which  have  little  present  or  prospective  value 
have  been  introduced  into  this  publication,  since  it  was  thought  just 
as  important  to  know  what  not  to  plant  as  to  know  what  to  plant. 
Some  species  may  not  be  valuable  for  the  production  of  timber  but 
they  may  have  a  value  as  shelter  to  other  species  or  as  soil  pro- 
tectors and  soil  conservers.  Many  species  which  cannot  be  regarded 
as  final  members  of  a  timber-producing  forest  may  be  of  temporary 
value  in  helping  to  establish  the  more  valuable  permanent  species. 
We  should  be  cautious  in  eliminating  the  inferior  species  from  our 
forest  structure,  because  they  may  possess  a  value  which  is  not  evi- 
dent at  the  present  time.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  species 
despised  by  myself  may  be  prized  by  my  neighbor,  and  that  the 
species  despised  today  by  my  neighbor  and  myself  may  be  prized 
by  both  of  us  tomorrow.  Only  general  statements  are  made  with 
reference  to  the  importance  of  the  species.  A  fuller  discussion  of 
this  heading  may  be  found  in  any  standard  text  on  General  Forestry 
or  Silviculture. 

How  TO  IDENTIFY  THE  SPECIES  AND  USE  THE  KEYS: 

Since  this  publication  is  intended  primarily  for  laymen  and  for 
students  who  are  just  beginning  the  study  of  trees,  the  omission  of 
technical  terms  was  thought  advisable.  We  have  many  species  of 
trees,  some  common,  others  uncommon,  which  the  average  layman 
may  not  know.  He  can  learn  them  readily  if  their  distinguishing 
characteristics  are  presented  to  him  in  ordinary  language  accom- 
panied by  simple  and  exact  drawings.  This  publication  is  designed 
so  that  the  average  layman  with  even  a  limited  knowledge  concern- 
ing trees  can  use  it  and  identify  the  various  species  with  little,  if 
any,  difficulty. 

The  procedure  or  method  of  identification  varies  with  the  indi- 
vidual. One  may  take  material  from  a  tree  and  compare  it  with 
the  drawings  until  he  finds  one  with  which  it  corresponds  or  to  which 
it  fits,  and  then  feel  satisfied  that  he  has  learned  to  know  the  tree. 
To  check  himself  and  to  acquire  additional  information  he  may  read 
over  the  descriptive  material  accompanying  each  plate.  This  method 
of  comparison  with  plates,  while  the  one  commonly  used  by  laymen 
who  have  little  or  no  working  knowledge  concerning  trees,  is  labor- 
ious and  entirely  unscientific.  A  better  and  yet  simple  method  is  the 
use  of  an  analytic  key  for  the  identification  of  the  species.  Such  keys 
according  to  their  construction  may  be  simple  or  complex,  service- 
able or  unserviceable  to  the  average  layman.  In  constructing  the 
subjoined  analytic  key,  an  attempt  was  made  to  make  it  simple  and 
yet  exact,  based  upon  permanent  rather  than  transient,  and  constant 


59 

rather  than  variable  characteristics.  This  publication  will  no  doubt 
come  into  the  hands  of  different  classes  of  people,  some  of  whom 
will  recognize  at  a  glance  the  genus  to  which  a  certain  tree  belongs, 
while  others  will  not  have  the  slightest  idea  as  to  what  it  is.  An 
attempt  has  been  made  to  satisfy  both  types  of  persons.  The  former 
can  go  at  once  to  that  portion  of  the  publication  where  the  genus 
under  consideration  is  treated  and  by  the  use  of  the  "Key  to  the  Spec- 
ies" determine  the  exact  species  which  they  have  at  hand,  while  the 
latter  should  begin  at  the  "Key  to  the  Families"  found  on  page  63, 
and  use  the  key  until  the  family  to  which  it  belongs  is  found,  then  go 
to  the  family  and  use  the  "Key  to  the  Genera"  and  the  "Key  to  the 
Species'7  until  the  species  is  determined.  With  a  little  practice  one 
will  find  it  easy  to  use  such  simple  keys. 

Before  attempting  to  use  a  key,  it  is  necessary  that  good  material 
be  available.  Parts  of  trees  vary  considerably,  depending  upon  the 
environments  in  which  they  were  developed.  An  abnormal  environ- 
ment will  produce  abnormal  organs,  and  if  these  should  be  the  parts 
with  which  you  are  attempting  to  identify  the  species  through  the 
use  of  the  keys,  it  is  natural  that  it  would  be  a  difficult  task.  Struc- 
tural variations  are  commonly  found  in  leaves,  flowers,  fruit,  bark, 
as  well  as  other  plant  organs.  Upon  the  same  tree  or  even  the  same 
branch  one  may  find  three  or  more  distinct  varieties  of  leaves.  On 
account  of  this  variation,  which  often  makes  identification  difficult, 
abundant  material  should  always  be  at  hand,  and  especially  that 
which  is  normal  in  appearance.  The  keys  are  based  upon  normal  ma- 
terial and  may  not  fit  variable  forms.  Only  by  years  of  constant  and 
careful  study  of  trees  will  one  be  able  to  distinguish  accurately  be- 
tween normal  and  abnormal  material ;  but  by  carefully  observing  and 
constantly  studying  the  trees  one  will  unconsciously  absorb  many  de- 
tails concerning  them  which  can  be  appreciated  but  not  described. 
This  unconscious  absorption  of  appreciable  but  indescribable  detail 
in  trees  has  a  greater  significance  than  we  attribute  to  it  at  first. 
The  writer,  in  conducting  field  work  (Fig.  7)  for  five  years  in  connec- 
tion with  a  course  in  Dendrology  given  at  the  Pennsylvania  State 
Forest  Academy,  finds  that  the  students  learn  to  notice  many  differ- 
ences between  species,  which  differences  they  cannot  describe. 

The  keys  are  subdivided  into  three  classes,  viz :  "Key  to  the  Fam- 
ilies," "Key  to  the  Genera"  and  "Key  to  the  Species."  The  "Key  to 
the  Families"  is  found  on  page  63,  preceding  the  description  of  any 
of  the  species.  The  "Key  to  the  Genera"  is  found  under  the  descrip- 
tion of  each  family  which  contains  more  than  one  genus;  and  the 
"Key  to  the  Species"  is  found  under  such  genera  which  contain  more 
than  one  species.  The  reason  for  subdividing  the  keys  into  three 
classes  instead  of  combining  all  three  into  a  general  key  to  genera 


GO 

and  species,  was  the  fact  that  a  combined  key  is  often  difficult  to  use 
on  account  of  its  great  length,  and  tedious  to  operate  for  those  who 
can  recognize  the  family  or  genus  at  a  glance  but  do  not  know  the 
species.  Besides,  keys  to  the  genera  and  keys  to  the  species  are  more 
serviceable  when  placed  close  to  the  written  description  and  its  ac- 
companying plate  than  if  they  precede  the  descriptive  material  of  all 
the  species. 

The  three  classes  of  keys  are  constructed  on  the  same  plan;  conse- 
quently, they  can  be  used  in  the  same  manner.  To  use  them  it  is 
necessary  to  make  a  choice  for  the  most  part  between  two  alternatives 
stated  in  two  paragraphs  preceded  by  the  same  number.  The  choice 
leads  to  another  number  or  to  a  family,  a  genus  or  a  species  followed 
by  the  page  upon  which  a  further  description  is  found.  The  Sugar 
Maple  may  be  taken  as  an  example  to  show  how  to  use  the  key.  Un- 
der "Key  to  the  Families,"  page  63,  we  start  with  1.  We  have  the 
choice  between  trees  with  "Leaves  narrow,  needle-like,  awl-like,  or 
scale-like,  usually  persistent  except  in  the  genus  Larix"  and  trees 
with  "Leaves  broad,  flat,  rarely  five  times  as  long  as  wide,  usually 
deciduous."  We  select  the  latter,  which  is  followed  by  2.  Under  2 
we  have  the  choice  between  "Leaves  opposite  or  whorled,  i.  e.  2  or  3 
occur  at  a  node"  and  "Leaves  alternate,  i.  e.  only  one  occurs  at  a 
node."  We  choose  the  former,  which  is  followed  by  3.  Here  we  have 
the  choice  between  "Leaves  or  at  least  most  of  them  three  at  a  node" 
and  "Leaves  always  two  at  a  node."  We  select  the  latter,  which 
is  followed  by  4.  Here  we  have  the  choice  "Leaves  simple"  and 
"Leaves  compound."  We  select  the  former,  which  is  followed  by  5. 
Here  we  have  the  choice  between  "Leaves  palmately  lobed"  and 
"Leaves  not  lobed."  We  select  the  former,  which  is  followed  by 
Aceraceae,  which  is  the  family  name  for  the  Maples.  This  is  followed 
by  a  number  which  indicates  the  page  upon  which  a  further  descrip: 
tion  of  the  family  may  be  found.  At  this  point  it  is  advisable  to 
check  one's  self.  This  can  be  done  by  carefully  studying  the  descrip- 
tive matter  of  the  family  indicated  in  order  to  find  out  if  the  de- 
scription corresponds  to  the  species  under  consideration.  If  the 
description  does  not  correspond  it  is  advisable  to  go  back  to  the 
"Key  to  the  Families"  and  attempt  to  find  the  mistake.  If  the  de- 
scription does  correspond  it  is  reasonable  to  think  that  the  "Key  to 
the  Families"  was  used  correctly.  If  you  feel  certain  that  this  is  the 
correct  family  you  should  go  to  the  "Key  to  the  Genera,"  or  to  the 
"Key  to  the  Species."  No  "Key  to  the  Genera"  is  given  under  this 
family  because  it  contains  only  one  genus.  Under  the  "Key  to  the 
Genera"  and  the  "Key  to  the  Species"  the  same  method  of  procedure 
should  be  used  that  was  used  under  the  "Key  to  the  Families."  On 
account  of  the  wide  variation  between  the  distinguishing  characteris- 


Gl 

tics  which  are  present  in  summer  from  those  which  are  present  in 
winter,  it  has  sometimes  been  found  necessary  to  make  two  keys  to 
the  species,  one  a  summer  key  and  the  other  a  winter  key.  Two  such 
keys  are  found  under  the  Maple  family.  If  the  material  at  hand  hap- 
pens to  be  a  spray  of  leaves  of  the  Sugar  Maple,  the  summer  key 
should  be  used,  and  if  it  happens  to  be  a  branchlet  with  buds,  the 
winter  key  should  be  used. 

Since  the  family  key  which  was  used  to  this  point  was  based  pri- 
marily upon  summer  characteristics,  the  winter  key  will  now  be  used 
in  order  to  familiarize  you  with  the  slight  variations  which  are  found 
between  the  two  keys.  Under  "Winter  Key  to  the  Species,"  page  191, 
we  start  with  1.  Under  1  we  have  the  choice  between  "Buds  stalked 
with  few  exposed  scales'7  and  "Buds  sessile  or  nearly  so,  with  6  or 
more  exposed  scales."  We  select  the  latter,  which  is  followed  by  4.  Un- 
der 4  we  have  the  choice  between  "Buds  with  8-16  exposed  scales, 
brown,  acute,  non-collateral;  leaf-scars  nearly  encircle  stem"  and 
"Buds  with  6-8  exposed  scales,  red  or  green,  obtuse."  We  select  the 
former  which  is  followed  by  Sugar  Maple  (Acer  saccharurn)  page  194. 
On  this  page  a  full  description  of  the  species  is  found  accompanied 
by  a  sketch  on  the  opposite  page  of  the  principal  characteristics. 
If  the  descriptive  material  and  the  sketches  show  that  this  is  the 
species  under  consideration,  one  may  feel  satisfied  that  the  key  has 
been  used  properly.  If  the  description  does  not  correspond  it  is 
advisable  to  go  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  key,  follow  the  same  pro- 
cedure indicated  above  but  eliminating  the  mistake  which  must  have 
been  made.  The  same  method  of  identification  or  procedure  should 
be  used  for  every  other  species.  In  a  short  time  one  will  be  familiar 
enough  with  the  use  of  the  key  to  identify  the  species  and  will  do  so 
with  considerable  accuracy. 

If  you  cannot  identify  the  specimen  at  hand  with  the  aid  of  the 
keys,  description,  and  plates,  there  are  still  other  means  which  you 
may  use.  It  may  be  possible  that  an  institution  or  a  private  person 
in  your  part  of  the  State  possesses  an  herbarium  in  which  may  be 
found  a  similar  specimen  properly  labeled.  If  you  can  get  access  to 
such  an  herbarium  and  find  that  your  specimen  and  the  one  in  the 
herbarium  are  alike,  and  that  the  herbarium  specimen  was  labeled 
by  a  reliable  person,  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  you  have  identi- 
fied your  specimen  correctly.  It  may  also  be  possible  that  some  one 
connected  with  some  local  educational  institution  will  be  able  to  as- 
sist you  in  identifying  the  material.  All  material  sent  to  the  Den- 
drological  .Department  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  Forest  Academy, 
Mont  Alto,  Pa.,  will  be  identified  free  of  charge.  Persons  sending 
material  should  always  aim  to  send  an  abundance  of  it.  If  flow- 
ers, leaves,  fruits,  and  bark  are  obtainable  they  should  all  be  sent 


62 

The  wider  the  range  of  material  the  easier  and  the  more  accurate 
the  identification  will  be. 

Those  who  desire  to  collect  and  preserve  material  should  proceed 
in  the  same  manner  as  one  would  in  making  general  botanical  col- 
lections. The  dried  material  may  be  secured  on  strong  mounting 
paper.  The  writer  has  found  the  "Riker  Specimen  Mounts"  very 
satisfactory  for  preserving  and  displaying  the  different  parts  of 
trees.  Different  sizes  are  obtainable,  which  allows  one  to  select 
them  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  material  to  be  preserved. 


GENERAL    KEY    TO    THE    FAMILIES. 

Page. 
1.    Leaves    narrow,    needle-like,    awl  like,    or    scale-like,    usually    persistent    except    in    the 

genus    Larix Pinaceae  $7 

1.  Leaves  broad,    flat,    rarely  five   times  as  long  as  wide,   usually   deciduous 2 

2.  Leaves  opposite  or  whorled,  i.  e.,  two  or  three  occur  at  a  node,   8 

2.  Leaves  alternate,   i.   e.,  only  one  occurs  at  a  node 10 

3.  Leaves,   or  at  least  most  of  them,    three  at  a  node,    Bignoniaceae         211 

3.  Leaves  always  two  at  a  node,    4 

4.  Leaves   simple,    5 

4.  Leaves  compound 8 

5.  Leaves    palmately    lobed Aceraoeae         190 

5.  Leaves   not  lobed,    6 

6.  Leaves   serrate,    Viburnum   in    Caprifoliaceae         218 

6.  Leaves    entire,    7 

7.  Leaves   3-6    inches    long    with    curving    parallel    veins;    bases    of    leaf    stalks    enlarged, 

encircling  twigs Cornus  in  Cornaceae          204 

7.  Leaves  4-8  inches  long  without  curving  parallel  veins;   bases  of  leaf  stalks  do  not  en- 

circle twigs,    Chionanthus  in  Oleaceae         217 

8.  Leaves   palmately    compound Sapindaceae         200 

8.  Leaves  pinnately   compound,    9 

9.  Leaflets  usually  5-11;   finely   toothed  or   entire  margined Fraxinna  in   Oleaceae         212 

9.    Leaflets  usually  3,   sometimes  5-lobed  or  coarsely  serrate,    ..Acer  Negundo  in  Aceraceae         197 

10.    Leaves   simple 11 

10.  Leaves    compound,    40 

11.  Leaves    persistent, 12 

11.  Leaves     deciduous 14 

12.  Leaves   not  armed   with  spiny    teeth 18 

12.  Leaves  armed  with  spiny  teeth,    Ilex  opaoa  in  Aquifoliaoeae         181 

13.  Small    trees;     leaves    stout,     white    silky     beneath,     not     taper    pointed;     flowers    soli- 

tary,     Magnolia    virginiana    in   Magnoliaoeaa         156 

13.  Shrubs;    leaves    leathery,     yellowish-green    to    scurfy    beneath,    often    taper    pointed; 

flowers  in  clusters Rhododendron  and  Kalmia  in  Ericaceae         207 

14.  Leaves  with  entire  margins,    15 

14.  Leaves   with  toothed,    lobed,    or   incised   margins,    23 

15.  Leaves  broadly   heart-shaped;    flowers   reddish-purple,    shaped    like    pea   blossoms;    fruit 

a  pea-like  pod,    Cercis  in  Leguminosae        180 

15.  Leaves    not    broadly    heart-shaped;    flowers    not    shaped    like    pea    blossoms;    fruit    not 

a  pea-like  pod,    16 

16.  Stout  axillary  spines  present;   fruit  3-5  inches  in  diameter, Maclura  in Tlrticaceae         153 

16.  Stout  axillary  spines  absent;   fruit  smaller   17 

17.  Leaves    decidedly    aromatic,    often    somewhat   lobed;    twigs    spicy-aromatic,    mucilagin- 

ous if  chewed,   Lauraceae         161 

17.  Leaves  not  aromatic  or  lobed;  twigs  not  spicy-aromatic,   nor  mucilaginous,    18 

18.  Leaves    2-6    inches    long;     flowers    small    except    pistillate    of     Diospyros,     not    soli- 

tary  19 

18.    Leaves  more  than  6  inches  long;  flowers  large  and  solitary 22 

18.  Leaves  bristle-tipped,    linear-lanceolate  to  oblong;    pith   star-shaped;   fruit  an   acorn.... 

Quercus  imbrioaria  and  Q.  phellos  in  Fagaceae         146 

19.  Leaves  oval-ovate  or  obovate,    not  bristle-tipped;    pith  not  star-shaped;    fruit  a   drupe 

or   a    berry 20 


64 

Page. 
20.    Leaves   thin,    clustered  at  tip  of  twigs,    with   prominent  curved   parallel  veins;    small 

trees;  twigs  greenish  streaked  with  white Cornus  alternifolia  in  Cornaceae         205 

20.  Leaves   thick,    not   clustered   at   the   tip   of   twigs;    veins   not   parallel;    medium    sized 

trees;    twigs   not   greenish 21 

21.  Leaves  4-6  inches  long;   leaf  petioles  with   one   flbro-vascular  bundle;   fruit   a   globular 

berry   1-15   inches   in   diameter Ebenaceae         210 

21.  Leaves   2-5   inches    long;    leaf   petioles    with    3   flbro-vascular    bundles;    fruit    a    purple 

ovoid  drupe  f  of  an  inch  long Nyssa  in  Cornaceae         206 

22.  Stipules    and    stipule-scars    encircle    twigs;    flowers    greenish-white    or    yellowish;    fruit 

cone-like;   twigs  often  aromatic  and  bitter,    Magnoliaceae         155 

22.  Stipules   absent;    flowers    reddish-purple,    ill-smelling;    fruit    banana-like,    edible;    twigs 

not   aromatic   or    bitter Anonaceae         160 

23.  Leaf  margins  usually  lobed  or  incised 24 

23.  Leaf    margins    usually    toothed,     29 

24.  Leaves  star-shaped Liquidambar  in  Hamamelidaceae         163 

24.  Leaves    uot    star-shaped , 25 

25.  Leaves    silvery    beneath Populus    alba    in    Salicaceae          94 

25.  Leaves   not   silvery   beneath,    26 

26.  Leaves  rough  on  upper  surface,   with  milky  juice,   Morus  in  TTrticaceae         154 

26.  Leaves  not  rough  on  upper  surface,  without  milky  juice,   27 

27.  Leaves  decidedly  aromatic,   lobed  or  entire;  twigs  spicy-aromatic,    mucilaginous, 

Lauraceae         161 

27.  Leaves  not  aromatic;  twigs  not  spicy-aromatic  nor  mucilaginous 28 

28.  Leaves   palmately   veined;   base  of  leaf  petioles  hollow;   leaf  lobes  irregularly  toothed. 

Platanaceae         175 

28.  Leaves    pinnately    veined;    base    of    leaf    petioles    not    hollow;    leaf    lobes    rounded    or 

bristle-pointed,   intervening  spaces  deep  or  shallow,    Most  species  in  Fagaceae         123 

29.  Leaves   with   an   oblique  base,    30 

29.  Leaves   uot   with    an    oblique    base,    '. 32 

30.  Leaves  ovate  or  ovate-oblong;  rough  on  upper  surface,   TTlmus  and  Celtis  in  TTrticaceae         148 

30.  Leaves  rounded,  heart-shaped,  or  obovate;  smooth  on  upper  surface,   31 

31.  Loaves  straight-veined  with  wavy  margins;  flowers  in  late  autumn;  fruit  without  bract. 

Hamamelis    in    Hamamelidaceae         162 

31.  Leaves   not   straight   veined,    deeply   and   sharply   toothed;    flowers   appear   in   summer; 

fruit   with   bract Tiliaceae         202 

32.  Leaves  dentate  or  coarsely   toothed,    33 

32.  Leaves  not  dentate  nor  coarsely  toothed 34 

33.  Leaves  with  laterally  flattened  petioles,   Populus  grandidentata  in  Salicaceae          97 

33.  Leaves  not  with  laterally  flattened  petioles Few  species  in  Fagaceae         124 

34.  Fruit   dry, 35 

34.  Fruit  fleshy 37 

35.  Leaves  decidedly  sour;   flowers  and  fruit  produced   in   racemes   resembling  the  lily  of 

the  valley,   .' Oxydendrum  in  Ericaceae         209 

35.  Leaves  not  sour;  flowers  and  fruit  nrt  produced  in  racemes,    36 

36.  Fruit  1-seeded,    nut  or  samara,    subtended  by   bracts;   seeds  without  tuft  of  hairs  at 

apex;    flowers    monoecious;    calyx    present,     Betulaceae         111 

36.  Fruit   a   small   capsule   inclosing   numerous   seeds;    seeds   with   tuft   of   hairs   at   apex; 

flowers  dioecious;   calyx  absent,    Salicaceae          88 

37.  Thorns  or  spine-like  spurs  present, 

Prunus  americana,   Pyrus  coronaria,   and  Crataegus  sp.  in  Rosaoeae         164 

37.  Thorns  or  spine-like  spurs  not  present 38 

38.  Fruit  with  a  single  stone Prunus  in  Rosaceae         165 

38.  Fruit    several-seeded,    39 

39.  Leaves    Heart-shaped   or    rounded   at   base,    3-4   inches   long;    flowers    in    loose   racemes, 

Amelanchier  in  Rosaceae         174 
39.    Leaves  wedge-shaped  or  rounded  at   the   base,   4-5  inches  long;   flowers   solitary  or  in 

one  to  few  flowered  axillary  clusters Ilex  monticola  in  Aquifoliaceae         189 


65 


40. 
40. 


Leaves    with    entire    margins  ...............................................................  41 

Leaves  with   toothed  margins  ...........................  ,  ...................................  44 


Page. 


41. 


Leaves  even-pinnate,    ..........................  Gleditsia  and  Gymnooladus  in  Leguminosae 

Leaves  odd-pinnate  ............................................................................  42 


177 


42. 
42. 


Leaflets   small,    elliptic;    twigs  thorny,    ...........................  Robinia   in   Leguminosae 

Leaflets  large,  ovate;   twigs  not  thorny  ....................................................  43 


181 


43.    Leaflets   7-21,    not   toothed   at  base,    without   glands,    

Rhus  Vernix  and  R.  copallina  in  Anacardiaceae         183 

43.  Leaflets   11-41,    sometimes  with  2-4  blunt   teeth   at  base  which  have   glands   on   lower 

side  at  the  point  of  each  tooth Simarubaceae        187 

44.  Twigs  and  leaves  prickly;  leaves  twice  or  thrice  compound Araliaceae         199 

44.    Twigs  and  leaves  not  prickly;  leaves  once  compound 45 


45. 
45. 


Large   trees;    stamina  te   flowers   in  aments;    fruit   a   nut,    ..................  Juglandaceae 

Small  trees;  staminate  flowers  not  in  aments;  fruit  red  and  fleshy  .......................  46 


100 


46.    Leaflets  13-15;   sap  not  milky;   branches  heavy-tipped,    

Pyrus   americana   in   Rosaceae 

46.    Leaflets  11-31;   sap  milky;   branches  heavy-tipped, 

Rhus  typhina  and  R.   glabra  in  Anacardiaceae 


173 


TABULATION    OF    GENERA   AND    SPECIES. 


Families,    Genera,    etc. 

Species. 

World. 

North  America. 

Pennsylvania. 

Native. 

- 

Introduced. 

Gymnospermae. 
Fam.  I.     Pinaceae. 
Gen    1    Pinus                

70 
10 
19 
25 
8 
6 
4 
40 

175 

27 

15 
15 

7 
4 
12 
25 
25 

5 
5 
300 

34 
3 
8 
10 
4 
3 
2 
16 

100 
19 

5 
15 

3 

a 
i 

15 
10 

1 
3 
55 

6 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 

""z 

4  (15)* 
4 

2 
5(1) 

i  (1) 
1 
1 

1(1) 

1 
2 
16 

1 
1 

2 

'"i 

3 
4 

1 
1 

'"i 
i 

Gen    2   Larix,          

Gen.  3    Picea     

Gen    4    Abies 

Gen    5   Tsuga 

Gen    6    Chamaecyparis       .           

Angiospermae. 
Fam.    II.      Salicaceae. 
Gen     9    Salix 

Fam.     III.      Juglandaceae. 

Fam.   IV.     Betulaceae. 

Fam.  V.     Fagaceae. 

Gen.  20.  Quercus.    . 

5 


Families,   Genera,   etc. 

Species. 

•d 

1 

North  America. 

Pennsylvania. 

Native. 

Introduced. 

Fam.  VI.    Urticaceae. 

15 
60 

4 

25 

1 

8 
2 

3 
3 

7 

40 
30 
700 
90 

2 
7 
11 

7 

7 
120 
275 
70 
15 
20 
30 

40 
7 

100 
6 
1 

160 

40 
2 

7 

100 
2,819 

6 

1 
3 

8 
1 

8 
1 

1 
1 

3 

10 
23 
60 
43 

1 
3 

3 
7 

1 
16 
22 
13 
7 
8 
15 

15 
5 

10 
6 
1 

a 

16 

1 

2 
20 

661 

2 

f 

.... 
1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2  (4) 
1  (3) 
2  (14) 
4  (10) 

1 
1 
1 
2 

3  (3) 
2  (3) 
6 
2 
2 
1  (3) 
2(6) 

|« 

1 

j<« 

2(8) 
113  (76)* 

1 
.... 

1 

1 

""s 

1 

2 
1 

2 

29 

Gen    22    Celtis                                            •        •  •  •  • 

Gen   24    Morus     

Fam.   VII.     Magnoliaceae. 

Fam.  VIII.    Anonaceae. 

Fam.  IX.    Lanraceae. 
Gen    28    Sassafras                           

Fam.  X.    Hamamelidaceae. 

Fam.  XI.     Platanaceae. 

Fam.   XII.     Rosaceae. 
Gen   32   Pyrus     

Gen   83   Amelanchier,     

Fam.    XIII.      Leguminosae. 

Gen   38   Gleditsia 

Gen    39    Robinia      

Fam.  XIV.     Simarubaceae. 
Gen    40    Ailaiitbus 

Fam.   XV.     Anacardiaceae. 
Gen    41    Rbus             

Fam.    XVI.      Aquifoliaceae. 
Gen.  42.  Ilex,    

Fam.    XVII.      Aceraceae. 
Gen   43   Acer,     

Fam.  XVIII.     Sapindaceae. 

Fam.   XIX.     Tiliaceae. 
Gen    45   TiUa,     

Fam.  XX.     Araliaceae. 
Gen    46    Aralia 

Fam.  XXI.     Cornaceae. 

Gen.  48.  Nyssa,    

Fam.    XXII.     Ericaceae. 
Gen.   49.    Rhododendron,        .   . 

Gen.  50.  Kalmia,     

Gen.  51.  CKydendrum,     

Fam.    XXIII.     Ebenaceae. 
Gen.  52.  Diospyros,     

Fam.    XXIV.     Oleaceae. 
Gen.  53.  Fraxinus  

Gen.  54.  Chionanthus,    

Fam.   XXV.     Bipnoniaceae. 
Gen.  55.  Catalpa,    

Fam.   XXVI.     Caprlfollaceae. 
Gen.  56.  Viburnum  

Total  

•The  numbers  giveu  in  parenthesis  refer   to  species  native  to  Peunsylvania  but  not   described 
and   rarely   mentioned   in  this  publication. 


67 


THE  PINE  FAMILY— PINACEAE. 

There  is  general  agreement  that  the  Pine  and  Yew  families  com- 
prise the  two  divergent  branches  of  the  conifers  which  differ  from 
each  other  in  morphological  characters  and  geographical  distribu- 
tion. The  conifers  comprise  34  genera  and  about  300  species,  of 
which  number  8  genera  with  71  species  belong  to  the  Yew  family 
(Taxaceae)  and  26  genera  with  226  species  to  the  Pine  family 
(Pinaceae).  The  representatives  of  these  two  families  are  found 
mainly  in  temperate  regions,  both  northern  where  the  genus  Pinus 
predominates,  and  southern  where  the  genus  Podocarpus  predomi- 
nates. The  geographical  distribution  of  these  two  families  is  pecu- 
liar since  the  genera  of  the  northern  temperate  region  are  not  found 
in  the  southern  and  those  of  the  southern  are  not  found  in  the 
northern,  excepting  the  two  genera  (Heyderia  and  Podocarpus) 
which  cross  the  tropics.  Geological  records  together  with  the  sim- 
plicity of  floral  structure  show  us  that  the  members  of  this  family  are 
amongst  the  oldest  living  representatives  of  the  ancient  arbores- 
cent type  of  vegetation.  Morphological  evidence  seems  to  point 
to  the  belief  that  the  Yew  family  contains  representatives  of  the 
most  primitive  form  of  conifers  and  that  the  genus  Pinus  in  the 
Pine  family  contains  the  most  highly  specialized  forms.  The  sole 
representative  in  Pennsylvania  of  the  family  Taxaceae  is  the  Ameri- 
can Yew  or  Ground  Hemlock  (Taxus  canadensis,  Marsh.)  It  is  a 
small  evergreen  shrub  seldom  exceeding  5  feet  in  height. 

The  Pine  family  is  of  especial  economic  value  on  account  of  the 
many  commercial  products  which  are  obtained  from  it  and  the  wide 
range  of  silvicultural  characteristics  which  its  members  possess. 
The  annual  wood  production  of  the  members  of  this  family  in  the 
United  States  far  surpasses  that  of  the  members  of  any  other  fam- 
ily. The  wood  differs  markedly  from  that  of  the  broad-leaved  trees 
in  its  greater  uniformity,  smaller  porosity,  and  less  conspicuous 
medullary  rays.  Some  members  of  this  family  yield  large  quantities 
of  resin,  tar,  turpentine,  and  pitch.  The  fruit  of  some  species  is 
often  of  considerable  importance  as  food,  and  the  bark  of  many 
species  is  used  in  the  process  of  tanning. 

The  members  of  the  Pine  family  have  awl-shaped,  scale-shaped, 
or  needle-shaped  entire  leaves,  which  are  usually  persistent.  The 
American  Larch  is  the  only  coniferous  species  native  to  Pennsylva- 


68 

nia  which  is  without  foliage  in  winter.     The  subjoined  key  gives 
the  characteristics  of  the  genera  commonly  found  in  Pennsylvania: 


KEY  TO  THE   GENERA. 

Page. 
1.    Fruit  a   dry    cone   with   winged    seeds 2 

1.  Fruit  a  fleshy,  round,  dark-colored  berry  with  bony  seeds,   Juniperus          87 

2.  Leaves   linear    to   needle-shaped,    not    closely    overlapping;    cone-scales    numerous;    buds 

scaly 3 

2.  Leaves  scale-like,    closely  overlapping;    cone-scales   few;    buds  not   scaly ..7 

3.  Leaves  in  bundles  of  two  or  more  except  on  young  seedlings   and   on   terminal  twigs 

of  Larix,    4 

3.  Leaves  solitary • 5 

4.  Leaves  persistent,    2-5  in   each   bundle,    Pinus          68 

4.  Leaves    deciduous,    more    than   5   in   each   cluster,     Larix          77 

5.  Leaves  flattened,  whitish  on  lower  surface,    6 

5.  Leaves   4-angled,    needle  shaped Picea          78 

6.  Leaves   with   leaf-like    stalks,    about   2/5   of   an    inch   long;    twigs    rough;    cones    small 

with  persistent  scales,    Tsuga          83 

6.  Leaves  without  leaf-stalks,    usually  4/5  of  an  inch  or  more  in  length;    twigs   smooth; 

cones  large  with  deciduous  scales,   Abies          84 

7.  Leaves  less  than  J  of  an   inch  long;    twigs  rather   slender,    not   prominently   flattened; 

cones  globular  with  shield-shaped  scales  which  do  not  overlap Chamaecyparis          85 

7     Leaves   J    of    an    inch    or    more    in    length;    twigs   rather   prominently   flattened;    cones 

elongated  with  8-12  overlapping  scales Thuja          86 


THE  PINES— PINUS  (Tourn.)  L. 

This  genus  comprises  more  species  than  any  other  belonging  to 
the  Pine  family.  About  70  species  are  known  in  the  world,  34  of 
which  are  found  in  North  America  and  6  in  Pennsylvania.  Of  the 
34  species  in  North  America,  13  are  found  in  the  eastern  part  and 
21  in  the  western  part.  Besides  the  native  Pines  a  number  of  exotic 
species  have  been  planted  extensively  for  ornamental,  and  locally 
for  forestry  purposes.  The  commonest  exotic  species  are  Scotch 
Pine  (Pinus  sylvestris,  L.)  and  Austrian  Pine  (Pinus  Laricio  var. 
austriaca,  Endl.). 

The  Pines  are  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  climate  and  soil.  Cer- 
tain species  may  be  found  bordering  streams  and  lakes  or  close  to 
the  ocean  front  while  others  are  confined  to  mountain  tops  where 
they  ascend  to  the  timber  line.  This  adaptability  makes  some  of 
the  species  of  considerable  economic  value  even  though  they  may 
produce  no  wood  of  commercial  importance.  They  can  be  used  for 
afforesting  mountain  slopes  where  protection  forests  are  to  be  formed 
and  maintained,  and  to  reclaim  sand  barrens. 

The  Pines  are  generally  trees,  rarely  shrubs,  and  of  considerable 
commercial  importance  on  account  of  the  excellent  qaality  and  large 
quantity  of  major  and  minor  forest  products  which  they  yield.  Sev- 
eral species  of  Pine  have  always  been  foremost  in  the  estimation  of 


69 

lumbermen  and  the  public  since  the  American  Forests  began  to  be 
exploited.  Until  recently  more  pine  lumber  has  been  produced  an- 
nually in  the  United  States  than  all  other  kinds  of  lumber  com- 
bined. The  lumber-producing  pine  trees  have  played  a  very  impor- 
tant role  in  our  economic  and  industrial  development.  The  Pines 
are  distinguished  commercially  into  two  classes,  Soft  Pines  and 
Hard  Pines.  In  the  United  States  there  are  12  species  of  Soft  Pine, 
and  22  species  of  Hard  Pine.  The  White  Pine  is  the  sole  eastern 
representative  of  the  Soft  Pines,  while  the  Hard  Pines  have  12  repre- 
sentatives in  the  eastern  and  southern  United  States. 

The  Pines  have  three  lands  of  leaves:  seed,  primary,  and  secondary 
leaves.  The  primary  leaves  soon  disappear  and  are  seldom  seen  ex- 
cept on  seedlings.  The  secondary  leaves  occur  singly  or  in  clusters 
of  2  to  5  and  often  have  a  persistent  or  deciduous  sheath  surrounding 
them  at  the  base.  They  are  semi-circular  or  triangular  in  cross- 
section,  depending  upon  the  number  which  occur  in  a  cluster.  The 
flowers  usually  appear  in  spring.  The  staminate  are  borne  at  the 
base  of  the  season's  growth  in  clusters  and  produce  enormous  quanti- 
ties of  sulphur-like  pollen.  The  pistillate  occur  near  the  terminal 
part  of  the  new  shoot  or  laterally  along  it,  solitary  or  in  whorls 
of  2-5  or  more.  Prior  to  pollination  they  normally  stand  erect  but 
after  this  process  has  been  completed  they  begin  to  droop.  The 
wind  is  the  chief  agent  of  pollination.  Fertilization  takes  place 
about  13  months  after  pollination.  The  result  of  these  processes  is 
usually  a  cone  which  matures  at  the  end  of  the  second  or  sometimes 
the  third  season.  The  cones  are  composed  of  numerous  scales  at  the 
base  of  which  the  seeds  are  produced  in  pairs. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES. 

Page. 
1.    Leaves  5  in  a  sheath,   slender,  with  1  flbro-vascular  bundle,    P.  Strobus  70 

1.  Leaves  fewer  than  5  in  a  sheath,  usually  stout,   with  2  flbro-vascular  bundles,    2 

2.  Leaves   3   in   a   sheath, P.    rigida          71 

2.  Leaves  2  in  a  sheath,    3 

3.  Leaves  5-6  inches  long;   cones  subterminal,    scales  unarmed,    P.  n&sinosa          72 

3.  Leaves  less  than  5  inches  long;  cones  lateral,  scales  armed  with  spines  or  prickles,    .4 

4.  Cones    2J-3J    inches    long,    armed    with    stout    spines;    leaves    very    sharp-pointed    and 

stiff,    P.    pungens  73 

4.  Cones  3  inches  or  less  in  length,  armed  with  prickles;  leaves  slender  to  slightly  stiff,   .5 

5.  Leaves  slender,  straight,  occasionally  3  in  a  sheath,  4  inches  long  or  less,  P.  echinata          74 

5.  Leaves   stout,    twisted,    1J-3J   inches   long 6 

6.  Twigs    smooth,    greenish-purple    to   grayish-brown;    cones    at    right    angles    to    branch 

P.   virginiana          75 
6.    Twigs   rough,    dull  grayish-yellow;   cones  pointing   backward;   bark  of  tipper   third  of 

trunk  reddish;   European  species, P.   aylvestris          76 


70 


WHITE  PINE. 
Pinus  Strobus,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — At  present  seldom  exceeding  3  ft.  in  diameter  and  125  ft.  in  height,  usually  50-90  ft. 
high  and  15  to  3  ft.  in  diameter.  When  grown  in  dense  stands  (Figs.  1  and  10)  the  trees  are 
tall,  straight,  free  from  lateral  branches  for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  ground,  have 
little  stem-taper  and  shallow  crowns.  When  grown  in  the  open  (Fig.  34,  specimen  on  left),  it 
has  much  stem-taper  is  relatively  low,  often  forked,  covered  with  persistent  lateral  branches 
almost  to  the  ground  which  make  it  attractive  ornamentally  but  of  low  commercial  value. 

BARK — On  young  branches,  thin,  smooth,  greenish -brown;  later  scaly  and  darker.  On  old  trees 
thick,  dark  gray,  and  divided  by  long  and  shallow  fissures  into  broad  longitudinal  ridges  (See 
Fig.  44.) 

-  TWIGS — Slender,  flexible,  at  first  hairy,  slightly  roughened  by  raised  leaf-scars.  New  growth 
at  first  light  green  and  erect.  During  first  winter  light  brown  in  color,  less  erect  in  position, 
very  resinous  if  punctured. 

BUDS — In  terminal  cluster,  ovate-oblong,  sharp-pointed,  with  numerous  brown,  long-pointed 
and  overlapping  scales.  Apical  bud  I-*  of  an  inch  long.  Lateral  buds  about  i  of  an  inch  long. 

LEAVES — Light  green  when  young  and  bluish-green,  soft,  flexible,  2|-5  inches  long  when 
mature;  persist  usually  until  end  of  second  season,  occur  in  clusters  of  five,  are  -triangular  in 
cross-section,  contain  one  fibro-vascular  bundle,  have  finely  serrate  edges  and  are  surrounded 
at  the  base  by  a  deciduous  sheath. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May.  Staminate  flowers  clustered  at  base  of  new  growth  of  season, 
yellow,  oval,  about  i  of  an  inch  long.  Pistillate  flowers  solitary  or  in  small  groups,  lateral 
along  new  growth,  pinkish-purple,  cylindrical,  about  1  of  an  inch  long. 

FRUIT — A  cone  maturing  in  two  seasons,  5-10  inches  long,  drooping,  stalked,  slightly  curved, 
and  covered  with  thin  unarmed  scales  without  thickened  apex.  Seeds  are  winged,  J  of  an  inch 
long,  dark  brown  in  color  on  both  sides  and  mottled  with  black  spots. 

WOOD — Non-porous;  resinous,  soft,  straight-grained,  easily  worked,  light  brown  except  sapwood 
which  may  be  almost  white.  Weighs  24.04  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Formerly  used  for  a  wider  range 
of  purposes  than  any  other  native  species  and  adapted  for  practically  all  uses  except  where 
strength,  hardness,  flexibility  and  durability  in  contact  with  soil  are  required. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  White  Pine  is  the  only  species  of  Pine  native 
to  eastern  North  America  which  has  soft,  flexible,  bluish-green  needles  in  clusters  of  five.  The 
lateral  branches,  usually  3-7  in  a  whorl,  are  arranged  in  distinct  horizontal  layers.  The  cones 
are  5-10  inches  long,  long-stalked,  and  their  cone-scales  are  thin,  flat,  and  unarmed. 

RANGE — Newfoundland  to  Manitoba  on  the  north,  south  through  northern  states  to  Penn- 
sylvania and  along  the  Allegheny  Mountains  to  Georgia,  and  southwest  to  Iowa. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Common  in  the  mountainous  portion  of  the  State. 
Originally  formed  heavy  stands  especially  in  the  central  and  northern  parts  of  the  State.  Some- 
times pure  but  usually  mixed  with  other  species.  Found  sparingly  in  the  southwestern  and  south- 
eastern parts  where  it  is  usually  limited  to  cool  ravines  and  north  slopes.  Rarely  found  at  present 
in  valleys  like  the  Cumberland,  Lancaster,  Chester,  lower  Lehigh  and  lower  Delaware. 

HABITAT — Prefers  a  fertile,  moist,  well-drained  soil,  but  will  grow  well  on  dry  sandy, 
soils  and  gravelly  slopes.  Common  on  banks  of  streams,  river  fiats,  in  hollows  and  ravines, 
but  rarely  found  in  swamps.  Any  habitat  in  its  natural  range  will  be  favorable  to  its  develop- 
ment except  swamps  and  ridges  exposed  to  severe  winds. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— White  Pine  is  one  of  the  most  important  timber  trees  of 
the  United  States.  It  is  indigenous  to  America  but  was  introduced  into  England  by  Lord  Wey- 
moutb  in  1705  and  shortly  afterwards  into  Germany  where  it  is  no  longer  regarded  an  exotic 
species  but  a  naturalized  member  of  the  German  forest.  This  species  can  be  recommended  for 
forestry  purposes,  because  it  may  be  regenerated  successfully  both  naturally  and  artificially 
as  shown  by  the  numerous  and  extended  German  experiments.  It  adapts  itself  to  a  great 
variety  of  soil  conditions,  is  a  rapid  grower,  is  very  attractive  ornamentally,  and  will  thrive 
in  pure  or  mixed  stands;  but  the  latter  are  best  on  account  of  less  danger  from  disease,  better 
natural  pruning,  and  earlier  financial  returns  from  thinnings. 


PLATE  XII.     WHITE  PINE. 

1.  Branch  with  needles  and  terminal  cluster  of  buds,   x  i. 

2.  A  cluster  of  five  needles,   x  J. 

3.  Tip  of  needle  with  sharply  serrate  margin,   enlarged. 

4.  Branch  with  staminate  flowers,   x  J. 

5.  Branch    with    (a)    pistillate    flowers    on    new    growth    (b)    one-year    old    cone   on    last    season's 

growth,  x  |. 

6.  Branch  with  an  open  and  a  closed  cone,  x  j. 

7.  Lower  side  of  a  cone  scale,  x  J. 

8.  Upper  side  of  a  cone  scale  with  two  winged  seeds,  x  J. 

9.  A  winged  seed,   x  J. 

10.  A  seed,   natural  size. 

11.  Section  of  seed  with  embryo,   natural  size. 

12.  A  seedling,   x  J. 


PLATE  XIII.     PITCH  PINE. 

1.  Branch  with  needles  and  terminal  cluster  of  buds,  x  J. 

2.  A  cluster  of  three  needles,   x  J. 

3.  Tip  of  a  needle  with  serrate  margin,  enlarged. 

4.  Branch  with  needles  and  a  closed  cone,  x  i. 

5.  An  open  cone,   x  J. 

6.  Lower  side  of  a  cone  scale,  x  J. 

7.  Upper  side  of  a  cone  scale  with  two  winged  seeds,   x  }. 

8.  A  winged  seed,  natural  size. 

9.  A  seed,   natural  size. 


71 


PITCH  PINE. 

Pinus  rigida,  Miller. 

FORM — Usually  attains  a  height  of  40-50  ft.  and  a  diameter  of  1-2  ft.  and  seldom  exceeds  70- 
80  ft.  in  height  and  3i  ft.  in  diameter.  Trunk  rather  tapering  except  in  occasional  pure  and 
closed  stands.  Opeu  grown  trees  have  an  irregular  wide  pyramidal  crown.  Branches  numerous, 
irregular,  gnarled,  often  drooping,  and  covered  by  small  plate-like  scales  and  numerous  persistent 
cones.  Crown  is  often  so  irregular  and  scraggy  in  appearance  that  it  becomes  picturesque. 

BARK — On  young  branches  green  and  smooth  soon  becoming  yellowish,  later  grayish-brown 
and  roughened  by  persistent  bases  of  the  bud-scales.  On  young  trunks  roughened  with  red- 
di&h -brown  scales,  with  age  becoming  rougher  through  deep  furrows  and  flat  ridges  which 
separate  into  thin  reddish-brown  scales.  The  scales  sometimes  appear  black,  whence  the  name 
Nigger  Pine.  See  Fig.  46. 

TWIGS— Stout,  brittle,  smooth,  brown  and  very  rough  on  account  of  persistent  elevated  and 
decurrent  bases  upon  which  the  leaf-clusters  rested. 

BUDS — Ovate,  sharp-pointed,  often  resinous,  1-1  of  an  inch  long,  covered  with  imbricated, 
loose,  brown,  and  shining  scales. 

LEAVES — In  sheathed  clusters  of  3,  stout,  rigid,  dull-pointed,  closely  and  sharply  toothed, 
at  first  light  green,  later  yellowish-green,  2J-5  inches  long,  with  stomata  on  all  sides,  and 
contain  2  fibro-vascular  bundles  and  3-7  resin-ducts. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  April  or  May.  Staminate  flowers  clustered  at  base  of  new  growth 
of  season,  are  cylindrical,  yellow,  J  of  an  inch  long,  and  produce  an  enormous  amount  of 
pollen.  Pistillate  flowers  solitary  or  clustered,  lateral  on  new  growth,  at  first  green,  later 
tinged  with  red. 

FRUIT — A  cone  maturing  in  2  seasons,  l$-3i  inches  long,  sessile  or  short-stalked,  ovate, 
occurs  solitary  or  whorled,  often  stands  at  right  angles  to  the  branch,  and  persists  for  10  or  more 
years.  Cone  scales  thickened  at  apex,  armed  with  short  rigid  recurved  prickles.  Seeds  winged, 
dull  or  glossy  black,  sometimes  mottled  with  gray  or  red  dots. 

WOOD — Non-porous:  resinous,  light,  brittle,  coarse-grained,  rather  durable,  brownish-red  with 
abundant  lighter  sapwood.  Weighs  32.10  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  railroad  ties,  charcoal, 
mine  props,  fuel,  sometimes  for  construction  timber  and  lumber. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Pitch  Pine,  also  known  as  Jack  Pine  and  Nigger 
Pine,  is  the  only  native  Pine  of  Pennsylvania  with  leaves  in  sheathed  clusters  of  3.  The 
Yellow  Pine  may  occasionally  have  the  needles  in  clusters  of  3,  but  usually  2.  Pitch  Pine  has  a 
very  irregular  and  scraggy  appearance  due  to  the  dead  and  gnarled  branches  which  are  often 
covered  with  clusters  of  persistent  cones.  The  bark  is  thick  and  irregularly  fissured  with  In- 
tervening flat  ridges  which  separate  into  thin  reddish-brown  sometimes  black  scales.  Trunks 
are  often  fire  scarred.  Such  trunks  are  frequently  covered  with  dense  mats  or  clusters  of 
leaves  and  short  branches. 

RANGE — New  Brunswick  to  Lako  Ontario  on  the  north,  south  to  Virginia  and  along  moun- 
tains to  Georgia,  and  west  to  western  New  York,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  in  practically  all  parts  of  the  State,  but  rare 
and  local  in  the  southeastern  and  southwestern  parts.  Occurs  in  excellent  pure  stands  at  the  base 
of  the  South  Mountains  in  Franklin  county,  and  in  Pike  county.  Sparse  in  the  rich  agricultural 
sections  of  the  State.  In  many  regions  it  occurs  only  as  a  scattered  tree  mixed  with  hardwoods. 

HABITAT — Common  on  dry  burned-over  areas,  sterile  plains,  gravelly  slopes,  rocky  cliffs, 
and  sometimes  found  in  swamps.  In  the  glaciated  area  it  is  common  on  rocky  glacial  soil. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— From  a  commercial  point  of  view  this  species  is  not  so 
important  as  the  White  Pine  or  the  Red  Pine,  but  It  is  gradully  growing  in  importance  since 
new  uses  are  found  for  the  wood  and  prices  of  other  woods  are  rising.  Silviculturally  it  is 
valuable  on  account  of  its  adapatability  to  poor  soil  and  its  fire  resisting  qualities.  These 
qualities  recommend  it  for  reforesting  neglected  or  fire  endangered  lands  on  mountain  slopes 
as  well  as  low  sandy  areas.  It  may  not  be  the  species  ultimately  desired  upon  the  area,  but 
may  act  as  a  shelter  during  the  establishment  of  a  stand  of  a  more  valuable  species. 


72 


RED  PINE. 

Pinus  resinosa,  Aiton. 

FORM — Usually  from  50-75  ft.  in  height  with  a  diameter  of  2-3  ft.  but  reaching  a  maximum 
height  of  140  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4J  ft.  In  closed  stands  trunk  is  straight,  tall,  slightly- 
tapering,  and  free  from  lateral  branches  for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  base  while  in, 
open  stands  the  lateral  branches  extend  nearly  to  the  base  and  the  trunk  is  often  branched 
and  strongly-tapered.  Crown  usually  broad,  irregular,  pyramidal,  with  dark  green  foliage 
tufted  at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  See  Fig.  42. 

BARK — Reddish-brown,  f-li  inches  thick,  divided  by  shallow  furrows  into  broad  flat  ridges 
which  peel  off  in  thin  scales.  See  Fig.  45. 

TWIGS — Stout,  slightly  roughened  by  persistent  bases  of  bud-scales;  at  first  yellowish-brown, 
later  reddish-brown. 

BUDS — Ovoid,  pointed,  1-2  of  an  inch  long.  Bud-scales  brown,  thin,  loose,  and  fringed  on  the 
margin. 

LEAVES — In  sheathed  clusters  of  2,  4-6  inches  long,  dark  green,  rather  slender  and  flexible, 
sharp,  persisting  for  3-5  years. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  May.  Staminate  flowers  about  \  of  an  inch  long,  occur  In  dense 
clusters  at  base  of  growth  of  season,  have  dark  purple  anthers.  Pistillate  flowers  subterminal, 
2  to  3  in  a  whorl,  short-stalked,  scarlet. 

FRUIT — A  cone  about  2  inches  long,  nearly  sessile,  light  brown,  ovate-conical  when  closed 
and  somewhat  spherical  when  open,  persisting  until  the  following  year.  Cone-scales  chestnut- 
brown  with  ends  slightly  thickened  and  transversely  ridged  but  not  armed  with  spines  or 
prickles. 

WOOD — Nomporous;  resinous,  bard,  pale  red,  with  thin  light  sapwood,  and  very  conspicuous 
medullary  rays.  Weighs  30.25  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Green  wood  is  very  heavy  and  will  sink. 
Used  for  heavy  construction,  piles,  masts,  in  general  for  nearly  all  other  purposes  for  which 
White  Pine  is  used. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Red  Pine,  also  known  as  Norway  Pine,  is  es- 
sentially a  northern  tree  and  is  the  only  native  Pine  of  Pennsylvania  with  needles  4-6  inches 
long,  sheathed  in  clusters  of  2.  Its  cones  are  about  2  inches  long,  subterminal,  and  bear  scales 
which  are  not  armed  with  spines  or  prickles.  The  needles  are  torne  in  tufts  at  the  ends  of 
branches. 

RANGE — Distinctly  a  northern  tree  occurring  from  Nova  Scotia  and  Quebec  on  the  north  to 
Pennsylvania  on  the  south,  and  west  to  Minnesota. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  only  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State.  Its 
southern  limit  in  the  central  part  of  the  State  is  about  at  Williamsport.  In  the  eastern  and 
western  parts  it  does  not  come  so  far  south  as  in  the  central  part. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  on  dry  gravelly  ridges,  mountain-tops,  and  dry  sandy  plains.  Rare 
on  flat  lands  with  wet  clay  soil. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Red  Pine  is  a  valuable  timber  tree  usually  mixed  with 
other  species  of  trees  but  occasionally  found  in  dense  pure  stands  in  Minnesota.  This  tree  is 
remarkably  well  adapted  to  natural  seed  regeneration  since  it  produces  a  great  quantity  of 
light,  large-winged  seeds  which  are  readily  disseminated  by  the  wind  and  does  not  shed  an 
its  seeds  at  the  same  time.  It  readily  adapts  itself  to  variable  conditions,  Is  attractive 
ornamentally,  and  should  be  regenerated  naturally  where  seed  trees  are  at  hand  and  arti- 
ficially upon  such  areas  where  other  more  valuable  trees  will  not  grow. 


PLATE  XIV.     RED  PINE. 

1.  Branch   with    needles   and   terminal   cluster   of    buds     x   4 

2.  A  cluster  of  two  needles,    x  J. 

3.  Branch   with   needles   and   cones,    x   J. 

4.  Lower  side  of  an  unarmed  cone  scale,   natural  size. 

5.  Upper   side   of    a   cone   scale   with    t\vo    wingi-d    seeds,    natural 

6.  A  winged  seed,   natural  size. 

7.  A  seed,    natural  size. 

8.  A  seedling,  x  J. 


size 


PLATE  XV.     TABLE  MOUNTAIN  PINE. 

1.  Branch  with  needles  and  terminal  cluster  of  buds,    x  i. 

2.  A  cluster  of  two  stiff,   twisted  and  sharp-pointed  needles,    x  4. 

3.  New  growth  with  two  pistillate  flowers,   x  J. 

4.  Branch   with   needles   and    a   whorl   of   three   cones,    x    J. 

5.  Lower  view  of  a  cone  scale  with  a  spine,   x  J. 

6.  Lpper  view  of  a  cone  scale  with  two  winded  seeds,    x   i 
7    A  winged  seed,   s  J. 

8.  A   seed,    natural   size. 


73 


TABLE  MOUNTAIN  PINE. 
Pinus  pungens,  Lambert. 

FORM — Usually  attains  a  height  of  30-40  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  1-2  ft.,  but  when  crowded  In 
a  closed  forest  stand  it  may  attain  a  height  of  60  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2J-3  ft.  Crown  in  closed 
stands  shallow,  irregular,  narrow,  and  round-topped.  In  the  open  the  trunk  is  short,  bearing 
short  lateral  branches,  the  upper  ones  ascending  and  the  lower  ones  drooping.  Often  the  tree 
is  covered  with  branches  to  the  base  of  the  trunk  so  that  the  lower  branches  lie  prostrate 
on  the  ground.  See  Fig.  43. 

BARK — Dark  reddish-brown,  J-|  of  an  inch  thick,  roughened  by  shallow  fissures  into  irregular 
plates  which  peel  off  in  thin  films. 

TWIGS — Stout,  rather  brittle,  at  first  smooth  and  light  orange  to  purplish,  later  rather  rough 
and  dark  brown. 

BUDS — Resinous,  narrowly  elliptical,  blunt-pointed,  covered  with  overlapping  brown  scales. 
Terminal  buds  about  J-2  of  an  inch  long,  the  lateral  shorter. 

LEAVES — In  clusters  of  2  surrounded  by  a  persistent  sheath,  2-4  inches  long,  light  bluish- 
green,  stout,  very  stiff,  more  or  less  twisted,  very  sharp-pointed,  tufted  at  the  end  of  the 
branches,  persisting  for  2-3  years. 

FLOWERS— Appear  in  April  or  May.  Staminate  flowers  occur  in  long,  loose  clusters  at  the 
base  of  the  growth  of  the  season;  have  yellow  anthers.  Pistillate  flowers  appear  laterally  along 
new  growth  in  whorls  of  2-5  or  7,  and  are  very  short  and  stout-stalked. 

FRUIT — A  cone  3-4  inches  long,  sessile,  oblique  at  the  base,  in  whorls  of  2-5  or  7  or  even 
more,  light  brown,  short  ovoid,  persisting  for  15  or  more  years  but  shedding  seeds  soon  after 
maturity.  Cone-scales,  especially  those  near  base,  much  thickened  and  provided  with  a  strong 
curved  spine.  A  branch  7  years  old,  li  inches  thick  at  the  thickest  end  and  31  ft.  long  bore 
36  cones.  Trees  5  years  old  and  2-3  ft.  tall  can  be  found  which  bear  developing  cones. 

WOOD — Non-porous;  resinous,  brittle,  coai-se-grained,  pale  reddish-brown  with  light  sapwodd. 
Weigh  30.75  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  primarily  for  fuel  and  charcoal,  and  occasionally  sawed 
into  lumber. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Table  Mountain  Pine,  also  known  as  Poverty 
Pine,  can  readily  be  distinguished  by  its  coarse  and  massive  cones  armed  with  very  stout  curved 
spines.  The  cones  appear  usually  in  whorls  of  3,  5,  7  or  more  and  persist  for  many  years. 
The  stout,  twisted,  and  very  sharp-pointed  needles  are  also  characteristic.  The  growth  is  rather 
slow  and  the  terminal  shoots  are  stout,  stiff,  and  rough. 

RANGE — From  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  along  the  mountains  to  North  Carolina  and  north- 
ern Georgia. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Sparse  to  abundant  upon  the  mountains  In-  the  south- 
central  part  of  the  State  and  extends  northeast  on  the  mountains  to  Schuylkill  county.  It  is 
primarily  a  southern  species  which  occurs  in  pure  stands  on  the  mountains  in  Franklin  county. 
Common  on  some  mountains  in  Fulton,  Blair,  Huntingdon,  Mifflin,  Perry,  and  Union  coun- 
ties. Small  outposts  of  it  are  also  reported  from  Lancaster  and  York  counties. 

HABITAT — Commonly  found  on  dry,  rocky,  and  gravelly  slopes.  Occasionally  found  at  the 
base  of  the  mountains  on  somewhat  moist  clayey  soil. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  lumber  obtained  from  this  tree  is  of  little  commercial 
importance  on  account  of  its  small  size  and  the  numerous  knots  which  it  contains.  It  is  a 
very  aggressive  species  and  is  adapted  for  the  regeneration  of  worn-out  fields  as  well  as  to  pro- 
tect rocky  slopes  and  prominences  from  erosion.  It  occasionally  reaches  a  size  which  will 
yield  lumber.  Trees  20  inches  in  diameter  and  with  a  clear  length  of  25  feet  are  not  uncommon 
locally  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State. 


YELLOW  PINE. 

Pinus  echinata,  Miller. 

FORM — Attains  height  of  80-100  ft.,  occasionally  120  ft.  and  diameter  of  2-3  ft.,  occasionally 
*  ft.  Crown  shallow,  wide,  pyramidal  or  rounded.  Trunk  clean,  tall,  and  slightly  tapering. 
Lateral  branches  relatively  light,  very  brittle,  intolerant  of  shade,  and  consequently  drop  off 
very  early  producing  the  clean,  tall,  and  stately  trunk.  See  Figs.  11  and  34. 

BARK — On  young  branches  at  first  pale  green  and  smooth,  later  reddish-brown  and  scaly. 
On  old  trees  dark  brown  tinged  with  cinnamon-red,  often  i-1  inch  thick,  broken  by  distinct  fis- 
sures into  irregular,  often  rectangular  plates  which  peel  off  very  readily  into  numerous  thin 
filmy  scales.  See  Fig.  47. 

TWIGS — Stout,  brittle,  slightly  rough,  at  first  often  covered  with  glaucous  bloom,  later  be- 
coming reddish-brown. 

BUDS — Ovoid,    dull-pointed,    covered    with    sharp-pointed    dark    brown    scales. 

LEAVES — Usually  in  clusters  of  2  sometimes  3  or  even  4,  slender,  flexible,  faintly  toothed, 
abruptly  pointed,  dark  bluish-green,  3-4  inches  long,  surrounded  by  persistent  sheath,  and  per- 
sisting for  2-5  years. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  April  or  May.  Staminate  flowers  clustered  at  base  of  new  growth  of 
season,  nearly  sessile,  pale  purple.  Pistillate  flowers  rarely  solitary,  but  usually  2-4  in  a  whorl 
Just  below  end  of  new  growth,  borne  on  stout  erect  stems,  and  pale  rose  colored. 

FRUIT — A  cone  maturing  In  2  seasons.  One  year  old  cones  short-stalked,  oval,  about  1/6-i 
of  an  inch  long.  Mature  cones  short-stalked  or  sessile,  conic  when  closed  and  ovoid  when  open, 
11-2  inches  long,  often  persisting  for  2  or  more  years.  Cone-scales  have  slightly  enlarged  ends 
terminated  by  weak  or  deciduous  prickles.  Seeds  small,  triangular,  3/16  of  an  inch  long, 
i  of  an  inch  wide,  pale  brown  mottled  with  black  spots. 

WOOD — Non-porous;  resinous,  hard,  strong,  with  distinct  spring  and  summer  wood,  yellow- 
ish or  dark  brown.  Weighs  38.04  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  It  furnishes  the  most  desirable  of  the 
yellow  pine  lumber  of  commerce  and  is  largely  manufactured  into  lumber  used  for  general 
construction  and  carpentry. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Yellow  Pine,  also  known  as  Short-leaf  Pine, 
is  rarely  found  in  the  northern  part  of  Pennsylvania  which  will  prevent  confusing  It  with  the 
Red  Pine  native  only  to  the  northern  part  of  the  State.  It  can  be  distinguished  from  the  other 
species  of  Pine  found  growing  with  it  in  this  State  by  its  rather  slender  flexible  leaves  in 
sheathed  clusters  of  2,  sometimes  3  or  4,  its  conic  cones  with  scales  terminated  by  weak  or 
deciduous  prickles,  ,its  brittle  branchlets,  and  its  clean,  stately,  slightly-tapering  trunk,  the 
bark  of  which  is  marked  off  by  deep  furrows  into  irregular  or  rectangular  plates  which  peel 
off  very  readily  into  numerous  thin  film-like  scales.  The  needles  are  shorter  and  slenderer  than 
those  of  the  Pitch  Pine. 

RANGE — Southeastern  New  York  and  northern  Pennsylvania  to  Florida,  westward  to  Illinois, 
Kansas  and  southeastern  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— This  is  essentially  a  southern  species  but  extends  into 
Pennsylvania.  It  is  usually  mixed  with  hardwoods.  Large  specimens  of  it  are  found  in  the 
Benjamin  George  tract  (Fig.  11)  near  Mont  Alto,  Franklin  county.  It  is  also  reported  on 
the  Cook  tract  in  Jefferson  and  Forest  counties,  and  in  Fulton,  Lancaster,  Perry,  Lycoming,  and 
Union  counties. 

HABITAT — Common  on  poor,  sandy,  or  clayey  soil.  It  is  a  tree  of  the  plains  and  foothills. 
Reaches  its  optimum  development  on  the  uplands  and  undulating  plains  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
In  the  east  it  is  usually  mixed  with  hardwoods. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — Next  to  the  Long-leaf  Pine  this  species  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  Southern  Pines.  It  is  destined  to  play  a  very  important  role  in  future  forest 
management  in  the  regions  where  the  conditions  of  growth  are  favorable,  on  account  of  its 
economic  and  commercial  value.  This  species,  on  account  of  the  ease  with  which  it  regenerates 
naturally,  requires  little  assistance  from  the  hands  of  the  forester.  It  can  be  planted  upon 
favorable  situations  anywhere  in  Pennsylvania. 


PLATE  XVI.     YELLOW  PINE. 

1.  Branch    with    needles    and    terminal    cluster    of    buds,     x    J. 

2.  A  cluster  of  two  needles,  x  J. 

3.  Tip  of  a  needle  with  flnel>    serrate  margin,    enlarged. 

4.  Branch  with  needles  and  an  open  cone,  x  \. 

5.  Upper  side  of  a  cone  scale  with  two  winged  seeds,    x   4 

6.  Lower  side  of  a  cone  scale,   x  J. 


7.  A  winged  seed,   natural  size. 

8.  A  seed, 


, 
slightly  enlarged. 


PLATE  XVII.     JERSEY  OR  SCRUB  PINE. 


1.  Branch  with  needles  and  terminal  cluster  of 

buds,   x  |. 

2.  A  cluster  of  two  needles,  x  4 

3.  Tip  of  a  needle  with   finely   serrate  margin, 

enlarged. 

4.  Branch    with    needle   and    closed    cones,    x    |.  I 


5.  Lower   side   of   a   cone   scale,    x   i. 

6.  Upper  side  of  a  cone  scale  with  two  winged 

seeds,  x  S. 

7.  A  winged  seed,   natural  size. 

8.  A   seed,    natural   size. 


75 


JERSEY  OR  SCRUB  PINE. 

Pinus  virginiana,  Miller. 


FORM — Usually  attains  a  height  of  30-40  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  18  inches,  but  reaches  larger 
dimensions,  especially  in  Indiana.  Trunk  usually  short  since  the  long  horizontal  or  pendulous 
branches  cover  It  almost  to  the  base.  Young  trees  have  a  pyramidal  form  while  older  trees 
develop  a  rather  flat-topped  conic  form. 

BARK — On  the  trunk  i-i  of  an  inch  thick,  dark  reddish-brown,  shallowly  fissured  into  small 
flat  plates  separating  into  thin  film-like  scales.  Smoother  than  that  of  our  other  native  Pines. 
See  Fig.  48. 

TWIGS — Slender,  tough,  flexible,  rather  smooth,  at  first  greenish-purple  and  covered  with  a 
glaucous  bloom,  later  light  grayish-brown. 

BUDS — Ovate,  sharp-pointed,  1-J  of  an  inch  long,  covered  with  overlapping,  sharp-pointed,  brown 
scales. 

LEAVES — In  clusters  of  2  with  persistent  sheath,  1J-3  inches  long,  twisted,  bright  green, 
rather  stout,  fragrant,  sharply  thick-pointed,  finely  toothed,  divergent  above  the  sheath,  and 
closely  dispersed  on  twigs. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  April  or  May.  Staminate  flowers  crowded  at  base  of  growth  of  season, 
J  of  an  inch  long,  oblong,  with  yellowish-brown  anthers.  Pistillate  flowers  appear  near  the 
middle  of  the  season's  growth  and  are  long-stalked,  sub-globose,  solitary,  or  few  in  a  whorl. 

FRUIT — A  cone,  2-3  inches  long,  usually  sessile,  sometimes  slightly  curved,  conical  when 
closed  and  ovoid  when  open,  seldom  persisting  for  more  than  3  or  4  years.  Cone-scales  thin, 
nearly  flat,  thickened  at  apex,  and  terminated  with  a  prickle.  Seeds  rounded,  i  of  an  inch 
long,  J  of  an  inch  wide,  and  pale  brown. 

WOOD — Non-porous;  slightly  resinous,  light,  soft,  brittle,  pale  orange,  with  very  light  sap- 
wood.  Weighs  33.09  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  fuel,  and  to  some  extent  for  railroad  ties 
and  lumber. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Jersey  or  Scrub  Pine  can  be  distinguished  by 
its  short,  twisted,  and  divergent  needles  distributed  in  pairs  along  the  smooth,  purple,  slender, 
often  curved,  and  tough  branchlets.  The  cones  are  small,  with  thin  rather  flat  scales  and  provided 
with  slender  prickles.  The  divergent  and  twisted  needles  closely  dispersed  on  the  twigs  give 
rather  a  disheveled  appearance  to  them,  and  permits  one  to  distinguish  this  tree  at  a  distance 
since  the  light  of  the  background  is  diffused  through  it  so  evenly.  The  bark  is  smoother  than  in 
the  other  native  species  of  Pine,  and  upon  older  specimens  decidedly  reddish  in  color. 

RANGE — Southeastern  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  south  to  Georgia  and  Alabama,  west  to 
Indiana  and  Kentucky. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  locally  throughout  the  southern  part  of 
the  State.  It  is  primarily  a  southern  species  and  extends  as  far  north  as  Allegheny  county  in 
the  western  part,  Clinton  and  Lycoming  counties  in  the  central  part,  and  Northampton  county 
in  the  eastern  part.  In  Franklin  county  it  is  usually  found  at  the  base  of  the  mountains,  seldom 
ascending  the  mountains  or  extending  into  the  valley. 

HABITAT — Common  on  light  sandy  or  poor  rocky  soil.  It  is  common  on  the  sand  barrens  of 
New  Jersey,  and  on  exhausted  farm  land  and  cut-over  areas. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— It  is  not  of  much  importance  as  a  timber  tree  on  ac- 
count of  its  small  size.  While  it  is  of  little  commercial  importance  still  it  is  of  considerable 
economic  value  as  a  reforester  of  worn-out  and  neglected  lands.  For  ornamental  purposes  it  has 
been  used  very  little,  other  species  being  preferred. 


76 


SCOTCH  PINE. 

Pinus  sylvestris,  Linnaeus. 

FORM— Usually  70  ft.  high  with  a  diameter  of  1J-3  ft.  but  may  attain  a  height  of  120  ft.  with 
a  diameter  of  3-5  ft.  In  the  United  States  it  is  usually  planted  in  the  open  and  consequently  it 
has  a  short,  clean,  often  branched  trunk  bearing  numerous,  more  or  less  drooping  lateral 
branches.  Trees  in  closed  stands  produce  straight  and  clean  trunks  with  little  taper  and  a  short 
compact  crown.  At  a  distance  it  resembles  the  Pitch  Pine. 

BARK — On  the  trunk  scaly  and  peels  off  in  flakes  from  the  ridges  which  are  separated  by 
long  shallow  fissures.  Lower  part  of  the  trunk  is  rough  while  the  upper  is  rather  smooth  and 
distinctly  reddish  in  color.  Outside  bark  on  the  lower  trunk  is  grayish-brown  while  the  inner 
is  reddish-brown. 

TWIGS — Fairly  stout,  brittle,  dark  yellowish-gray,  smooth,  not  glossy. 
BUDS — Ovate,    blunt-pointed,    brown,    often   somewhat   resinous. 

LEAVES — In  sheathed  clusters  of  2,  15-35  inches  long,  bluish-green,  or  dark  green,  stout, 
twisted,  semi-circular  in  cross-section  and  containing  2  fibre-vascular  bundles. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  April  or  May.  Staminate  flowers  clustered  on  the  lower  half  of  this 
season's  growth,  ovate,  scarcely  2/5  of  an  inch  long.  Pistillate  flowers  appear  singly  or  in  2s 
Just  below  the  terminal  buds  of  this  season's  growth,  are  ovoid  and  short-stalked. 

FRUIT— A  cone  1}-2J  inches  long,  short-stalked,  conic-oblong,  solitary  or  in  2s  usually  pointing 
backward  and  grayish  or  reddish  in  color. 

WOOD — Non-porous;  resinous,  light,  reddish-brown  with  thick  light  yellowish  or  reddish  sap- 
wood.  Used  for  general  construction,  lumber,  railroad  ties,  hop-poles,  grape  vine  poles  and  fuel. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Scotch  Pine,  a  native  of  Europe,  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  Pines  of  Pennsylvania  by  the  reddish  appearance  of  the  upper  part 
of  the  trunk  and  adjoining  branches,  the  bluish-green  leaves  l$-3$  inches  long,  and  the  backward- 
pointing  cones.  It  has  rougher  twigs  than  the  Jersey  or  Scrub  Pine,  shorter  needles  than  the 
Red  Pine,  stouter  needles  than  the  Yellow  Pine,  and  blunter-pointed  needles  than  the  Table 
Mountain  Pine. 

RANGE — Not  native  to  America.  Abroad  it  extends  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  part 
of  western  Asia.  In  the  United  States  it  can  be  planted  over  a  large  area  in  the  northeastern 
states,  the  lake  states,  and  some  of  the  prairie  states.  Planted  for  ornamental  purposes  in  many 
parts  of  this  State  and  by  the  Pennsylvania  Department  of  Forestry  in  numerous  plantations. 

HABITAT — This  species  is  indifferent  to  soil  requirements,  water,  heat  of  summer,  and  cold 
of  winter.  It  will  grow  on  all  classes  of  soil,  even  dry,  sterile  sand.  The  rate  of  growth 
depends  more  on  the  physical  structure  than  the  chemical  composition  of  the  soil.  It  pre- 
fers deep  well  drained  sandy  loam.  It  is  very  intolerant  of  shade. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Scotch  Pine  is  a  very  important  tree  in  its  native  and 
adopted  European  home.  It  plays  a  prominent  role  in  the  forest  structure  of  parts  of  Ger- 
many, such  as  the  sandy  plains  along  the  Rhine  and  the  large  sandy  areas  of  northern  and 
eastern  Prussia.  Excellent  forests  of  this  species  can  be  seen  in  Germany,  but  it  is  not 
necessary  to  introduce  it  into  the  United  States  extensively  for  forestry  purposes  since  we  have 
superior  native  species  It  grows  very  rapidly  in  youth,  but  later  more  slowly. 


PLATE  XVIII.     SCOTCH  PINE. 

1.  A  branch  with  needles  and  buds,  x  J. 

2.  A  cluster  of  two  needles,  x  J. 

o.  Cross-section  of  two  needles,   enlarged. 

4.  Branch  with  needles;  i,   immature  cone;  m,    mature  cone,   x  J. 

5.  A  closed  cone,  x  J. 

6.  A  cone  scale  with  two  winged  seeds,  enlarged. 

7.  A  winged  seed,    enlarged. 

8.  A   seed,    enlarged. 

9.  A  seedling,    natural  size. 

10.  A  small  portion  of  a  branch  with  two  pistillate  flowers,   x  j. 

11.  A  branch  with  a  cluster  of  staminate  flowers  at  the  base  of  the  new  growth,   x  J. 


PLATE  XIX.     AMERICAN  LARCH. 


1.  Branch    with    developing    leaves    and    flowers, 

x   J. 

2.  Branch  with  needles   (clustered  and  solitary) 

and  fruit,  x  4. 
I.  A  cone  scale  with  two  winged  seeds,  enlarged. 

4.  A   winged   seed,    enlarged. 

5.  A    seed,     enlarged. 

6.  A  seedling,   enlarged. 


mtural 


7.  Terminal  portion  of  a  winter  branch, 

size. 

8.  Section  of   a  winter  branch,    enlarged. 

9.  A  winter  branch  with  lateral  spurs,    x  J. 

10.  A   cone  of  European  Larch    (Larix  decidua), 

x  *. 

11.  Leaf  of  European  Larch,    x  1. 

12.  Cross-section  of  leaf  of  European  Larch,    en- 

larged. 


77 


AMERICAN  LARCH. 
Larix  laricina,  (Du  Roi)  Koch. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — This  genus  comprises  about  10  species  found  in  the  cooler  portion  of  the 
northern  hemisphere  and  occasionally  extends  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle.  Of  the  10  known  species 
3  are  found  in  North  America,  2  in  the  western  part  and  1,  a  transcontinental  species.  The  latter 
is  found  in  Pennsylvania.  The  Larches  all  shed  their  leaves  every  fall  and  the  following  spring 
put  out  new  ones.  This  deciduous  habit  gives  the  trees  an  appearance  in  winter  of  dead  conifers. 
A  single  foreign  species  known  as  the  European  Larch  (Larix  decidua  Mill.),  is  planted  ex- 
tensively for  ornamental  purposes  and  lately  to  a  limited  extent  for  forestry  purposes.  It  is  a 
very  rapid  grower  and  will  thrive  on  drier  and  less  fertile  soil  than  our  native  eastern  species. 
It  should  not  be  planted  pure  but  mixed  with  other  species. 

FORM — A  medium-sized  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  30-60  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  1-2J 
ft.,  but  may  reach  a  height  of  110  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  ft.  Shrubby  towards  the  northern 
limits  of  its  range.  Trunk  straight,  continuous,  and  bearing  rather  straight,  slender,  and 
slightly  ascending  branches  which  form  in  the  open  a  narrow  pyramidal  crown. 

BARK — On  main  trunk  rather  close  but  roughened  by  small,  thin,  roundish,  reddish-brown 
scales.  On  the  smaller  branches  it  is  smooth,  thin,  bluish-gray.  See  Fig.  49. 

TWIGS — At  first  covered  with  a  bloom,  slender,  smooth,  later  becoming  dull  brown,  covered 
with  numerous,  short,  stout,  spur-like  lateral  branches. 

BUDS — Occur  at  end  of  spur-like  lateral  branches  and  along  last  season's  growth;  small,  about 
2/5  of  an  inch  long,  globose,  smooth,  shining,  and  dark  red  in  color. 

LEAVES — Linear,  triangular  in  cross-section,  I-1J  inches  long,  rounded  above,  keeled  below, 
and  deciduous.  They  occur  either  singly  along  terminal  shoots  or  clustered  in  fascicles  on  short 
spur-like  lateral  branches. 

LEAF-SCARS — 'Distinctly  decurrent,  very  small,  triangular  in  outline,  and  contain  a  single 
bundle-scar. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  with  the  leaves.  Staminate  flowers  sessile,  sub-globose,  yel- 
low, and  borne  on  one  or  two  year  old  branches.  Pistillate  flowers  short-stalked,  oblong,  reddish, 
and  borne  on  lateral  branches  of  previous  year. 

FRUIT — A  cone,  ovoid,  light  brown  with  blunt  apex,  5-1  of  an  inch  long,  consisting  of  about 
20  scales  which  are  largest  near  the  middle  and  smaller  towards  the  base  and  apex.  Seeds 
winged,  about  J  of  an  inch  long  and  mature  in  one  year. 

WOOD — Non-porous;  somewhat  resinous,  very  heavy,  hard,  strong,  very  durable  in  contact  with 
the  soil;  heartwood  bright  red;  sapwood  narrow  and  white.  Weighs  38.86  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 
Used  for  fence  posts,  telegraph  poles,  railroad  ties,  and  in  ship  building. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  American  Larch,  also  known  as  Tamarack,  Hack- 
matack, and  Black  Larch,  is  the  only  native  deciduous  conifer  of  Pennsylvania.  In  winter  it 
is  without  leaves  and  presents  the  appearance  of  a  dead  tree.  The  leading  branches  with  their 
spur-like  lateral  branches  bearing  tufts  of  linear  leaves  in  summer  and  small  reddish  buds  in 
winter,  are  characteristic.  It  bears  little  resemblance  to  any  of  our  native  conifers  but  does 
resemble  the  European  Larch  (Larix  decidua  Mill.)  which  may  be  distinguished  by  its  larger 
cones,  stouter  and  yellower  twigs,  and  longer  and  more  abundant  leaves. 

RANGE — Newfoundland  south  to  Pennsylvania,  west  to  Minnesota  and  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
through  British  Columbia  to  Alaska.  It  is  one  of  our  few  transcontinental  species. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Found  locally  in  moist  locations  in  Carbon,  Centre, 
Clinton,  Crawford,  Lackawanna,  Lycoming,  Monroe,  Pike,  Potter,  Tioga  and  Warren  counties. 

HABITAT — Frequents  swamps,  banks  of  lakes  and  rivers,  but  also  thrives  on  well  drained  hill- 
sides. It  is  one  of  the  most  boreal  of  eastern  conifers,  extending  north  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle 
to  the  limit  of  tree  growth.  On  account  of  its  wide  range  it  experiences  great  diversity  hi 
climate.  Each  varied  habitat  seems  to  stamp  the  tree  with  some  peculiarity  which  is  evident 
in  its  form  and  structure.  It  requires  abundant  light  throughout  life. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  American  Larch  is  essentially  a  northern  tree  but 
grows  naturally  in  parts  of  Pennsylvania  and  may  be  grown  artificially  in  other  parts.  The 
tree  is  especially  adapted  for  wet  locations  and  hence  may  be  used  where  other  more  valuable 
species  will  not  grow.  Seedlings  can  be  grown  in  the  nursery  and  transplanted  with  success, 
but  they  should  not  be  planted  in  dry  locations.  It  has  a  very  destructive  enemy  in  a  saw  fly, 
which  has  recently  destroyed  a  large  number  of  trees  over  an  extensive  territory  in  the  north- 
east. 


THE  SPRUCES— PICEA,  Link. 

The  Spruces  are  evergreen  trees  with  stiff,  often  sharp-pointed 
needles  which  persist  for  7-10  years.  All  the  species  of  Spruce  found 
in  eastern  North  America  and  all  but  two  species  found  in  western 
North  America  have  four-sided  needles.  The  two  exceptions  have 
flattened  needles  and  bear  stomata,  commonly  known  as  breathing 
pores,  only  on  the  upper  surface,  while  the  species  with  four-sided 
needles  have  stomata  on  all  sides.  The  needles  are  spirally  ar- 
ranged on  the  branches  and  are  not  stalked  but  borne  on  decurrent 
projections  of  the  bark  known  as  sterigmata.  The  staminate  and 
pistillate  flowers  are  separate  on  the  same  tree,  usually  on  the  same 
branch.  The  staminate,  which  bear  the  pollen,  are  yellow  to  red 
in  color,  cylindrical  in  outline,  and  open  lengthwise.  The  pistillate, 
which  develop  into  cones,  are  erect,  cylindrical,  short-stalked,  and 
pale  yellow  to  scarlet  in  color.  The  cones  mature  at  the  end  of  one 
season  and  are  always  drooping  and  usually  cylindrical  to  ovate  in 
outline.  The  cones  usually  fall  entire  during  the  first  winter  or 
sometimes  persist  for  a  few  years.  They  consist  of  numerous  per- 
sistent cone-scales  which  are  thin  and  unarmed,  and  consequently 
stand  in  strong  contrast  with  the  thick,  usually  armed,  cone- scales 
of  the  Pines.  The  cone-scales  are  largest  near  the  center  and  de- 
crease in  size  towards  the  apex  and  the  base.  The  fertile  scales  bear 
two  winged  seeds  on  each  cone-scale.  The  seeds  are  usually  light 
and  bear  a  rather  large  wing,  by  means  of  which  they  are  dissemi- 
nated over  great  distances  by  the  wind. 

The  trunks  of  the  Spruces  are  straight,  continuous,  and  taper 
gradually  to  the  top.  The  lumbermen  for  a  long  time  looked  un- 
favorably upon  the  Spruces  but  owing  to  changed  economic  condi- 
tions and  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  their  technical  value,  these 
same  species  are  now  considered  among  our  most  important  com- 
mercial species.  The  wood  of  these  same  species  is  now  considered 
amongst  the  most  important  of  the  northern  hemisphere  and  espec- 
ially adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  paper  pulp.  The  spruce  for- 
ests of  North  America  for  a  long  time  remained  practically  un- 
touched, but  are  now  being  exploited  on  a  gigantic  scale.  The 
march  of  forest  destruction  is  very  rapid  since  an  enormous  supply 
is  required  for  the  paper  pulp  industry.  In  order  to  supply  this 
growing  demand  and  not  diminish  the  available  supply  of  spruce 
wood  it  is  necessary  that  proper  and  systematic  treatment  be  given 
to  the  existing  spruce  areas,  since  we  cannot  hope  to  import  a  supply 
sufficient  to  satisfy  our  demand. 


79 

This  genus  comprises  about  18  to  20  known  species,  of  which  num- 
ber 8  are  found  in  North  America,  3  in  the  eastern  part  and  5  in  the 
western  part.  Two  of  the  eastern  species  are  native  to  Pennsylva- 
nia. In  addition  to  the  native  species  2  species,  exotic  to  the  State, 
are  commonly  planted  for  ornamental  purposes,  viz.,  the  Norway 
Spruce  (Picea  Abies  (L.)  Karst.),  and  Colorado  Blue  Spruce  (Picea 
pungens  Engelm.).  The  subjoined  key  will  distinguish  the  Spruces 
commonly  found  in  Pennsylvania. 


KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES. 

Page. 

1.    Cones  cylindrical,   over  3  inches  long;   terminal  part  of  lateral  branchlets  pendulous; 

leaves  slender,   dark  green,   glossy,  sharp-pointed,   P.  Abies          82 

1.  Cones   ovate   to   oblong,    less   than   3   inches   long;    terminal   part  of   lateral  branchlets 

not  decidedly  pendulous;   leaves   rather  stout,    often   blunt-pointed,    2 

2.-    Leaves  dark  yellowish-green;  cones   elongated-ovoid  with  clear   brown,    entire-margined 

scales,    P.    rubra          80 

2.  Leaves  bluish-green;  cones  short-ovoid;  often  persisting  beyond  iirst  season;  cone-scales 

dull,   grayish-brown  with  jagged  margin P,   mariana          81 


80 


RED  SPRUCE. 
Picea  rubra,  (Du  Roi)  Dietrich. 

FORM— A  medium-sized  tree  usually  reaching  a  height  of  70-80  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  1J-2 
ft.,  but  may  attain  a  height  of  110  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  ft.  Trunk  straight,  continuous, 
slightly  tapering,  bearing  long  persisting  lateral  branches  which  are  horizontal  in  the  middle, 
ascending  above  and  drooping  below.  Crown  narrow,  conical  in  form. 

BAiRK — Up  to  i  of  an  inch  in  thickness  and  roughened  by  irregular,  •  thin,  close,  reddish- 
brown  scales. 

TWIGS — Rough,    slender,    light  brown   to  dark    brown,    covered   with   pale   to   black   hairs. 

BUDS — Ovoid,  sharp-pointed,  i-i  of  an  inch  long,  covered  by  overlapping  sharp-pointed 
reddish-brown  scales. 

LEAVES — About  i-i  of  an  inch  long,  1/16  of  an  inch  wide,  4-sided,  yellowish-green,  rounded 
at  apex,  crowded,  and  pointing  outward  in  all  directions  on  twig,  without  real  leaf- stalka 
but  raised  on  decurrent  projections  of  bark,  known  as  sterigmata. 

LEAF-SCARS — Small,    with   a    single   bundle-scar,    borne    on   decurrent   projections   of    bark. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  April  or  May.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  separate,  but  appear 
on  the  same  tree.  Staminate.  oval,  almost  sessile,  reddish  in  color.  Pistillate  cylindrical,  1  of 
an  inch  long,  and  consist  of  rounded  thin  scales. 

FRUIT — A  cone  about  1J-2  inches  long,  elongated-ovoid,  short-stalked,  maturing  at  the  end 
of  first  season;  cone-scales  rounded,  reddish-brown,  with  entire  margin. 

WOOD — Non-porous;  light,  soft,  not  strong,  pale  in  color,  tinged  with  red,  with  resin  pas- 
sages present.  Weighs  28.13  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  pulp, 
sounding  boards  for  musical  instruments,  and  construction. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Red  Spruce,  sometimes  known  as  the  Spruce 
Pine,  can  be  distinguished  from  the  Black  Spruce  by  its  larger  cones,  which  usually  fall 
during  the  first  winter,  while  those  of  the  latter  usually  persist  for  a  longer  time.  The  cone- 
scales  of  the  Red  Spruce  are  a  clear  brown  and  entire-margined,  while  those  of  the  Black 
Spruce  are  grayish-brown  and  more  jagged.  The  needles  of  the  Red  Spruce  are  dark  green  to 
yellowish-green,  while  those  of  the  Black  Spruce  are  bluish-green.  It  can  readily  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  White  Spruce  and  the  Colorado  Blue  Spruce  by  its  hairy  twigs,  and  from 
the  Norway  Spruce  by  its  much  smaller  cones  and  absence  of  long  pendulous  branchlets. 

RANGE — Newfoundland  to  Pennsylvania  and  south  along  the  Alleghanies  to  Georgia,  west  to 
Minnesota.  Heavy  stands  occur  upon  the  high  mountains  of  western  North  Carolina. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Frequents  the  swamps  of  Monroe,  Pike  and  a  few 
other  counties. 

HABITAT — Common  upon  mountain  slopes  and  well  drained  upland,  but  also  found  on  moun- 
tain tops  and  on  the  margin  of  swamps  and  streams. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Red  Spruce  is  one  of  the  most  important  species  which 
supply  the  wood  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  pulp.  Where  natural  regeneration  is  pos- 
sible this  species  deserves  to  be  developed,  especially  in  places  too  wet  for  other  species  to 
grow.  In  this  State,  the  Bear  Meadows  in  Centre  county  and  the  lake  regions  of  Pike  and, 
Monroe  counties,  with  their  adjoining  swamps,  give  excellent  conditions  for  the  natural  develop- 
ment of  this  species. 


PLATE  XX.     RED  SPRUCE. 

1.  Branch   with   pistil!afe   flowers,    x   I. 

2.  Branch  with  staminate  flowers,  x  1. 

3.  Branch   with   needles   and   cones,    x   I. 

4.  A  cone   scale  with   two   winged   seeds,    x   5. 

5.  A  winged  seed,    natural  size. 

6.  A    seed,    enlarged. 

7.  Terminal  portion  of   a  twig  with  buds   and  without  needles,    natural   size. 

8.  A  seedling,    natural  size. 


PLATE  XXI.     BLACK  SPRUCE. 


1    Branch  with  pistillate  flowers    x  I 

2.  Branch    with  staminate  flowers,    x'i 

3.  Branch  with   needles   and   cones,    x    i 

4.  A  cone-scale  with  two  winged  seeds,  x  J. 

5.  A  winged  seed,   natural  size 

6.  A  seed,  enlarged. 


Withoilt 


81 


BLACK  SPRUCE. 
Picea  mariana,  (Miller)  BSP. 

FORM— A  small  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  20-30  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  1  ft.,  but 
may  reach  a  height  of  100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  ft.  Trunk  straight,  continuous,  very  taper- 
ing, bearing  irregular,  rather  short,  horizontal  branches,  often  with  ascending  tips  which  give 
the  tree  a  very  narrow,  irregular,  conic  form. 

BARK — Up  to  *  of  an  inch  in  thickness  and  roughened  by  irregular,  thin,  close,  grayish- 
brown  scales.  See  Fig.  51. 

TWIGS — Rough,    stout,    brown   to  yellowish-brown,    covered   with   pale   to   black   hairs. 

BUDS — Ovoid,  sharp-pointed,  i-J  of  an  inch  long,  covered  with  overlapping,  sharp-pointed, 
reddish-brown  scales. 

LEAVES — About  1-2  of  an  inch  long,  4-sided,  bluish-green,  rounded  at  apex,  straight  or 
slightly  curved,  without  real  leaf-bases,  but  resting  on  decurrent  projections  of  bark  known  as 
sterigmata. 

LEAF-SCARS — See  "Leaf -Scars"  under  Red  Spruce. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  occur  on  same  plant  but 
often  on  different  parts  of  it.  Staminate  sub-globose,  almost  sessile,  i  of  an  inch  long,  reddish 
in  color.  Pistillate  oblong,  cylindrical,  i  of  an  inch  long. 

FRUIT — A  cone  about  li  inches  long,  short-ovoid,  short-stalked,  maturing  at  the  end  of 
the  first  season;  core-scales  rounded,  dull  grayish-brown  with  jagged  margin. 

WOOD — Non-porous;  with  resin  passages  present;  light,  soft,  not  strong,  pale  yellowish- 
white  in  color.  Weighs  32.86  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  pulp 
and  occasionally  in  lumber. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — See  "Distinguishing  Characteristics"  under  Red  Spruce 
page  80. 

RANGE — It  is  a  transcontinental  species  extending  from  Labrador  to  Alaska  and  south  to 
Pennsylvania  and  Wisconsin. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Frequents  swamps,  rather  common  along  lakes  and  in 
swamps  of  Monroe  and  Pike  counties  and  in  Bear  Meadows,  Centre  and  Huntingdon  counties. 
Also  reported  in  Cambria,  Clinton,  Lackawanna,  Lycoming  and  Mifllin  counties. 

HABITAT — The   Black   Spruce,    also   known   as   Swamp   Spruce,    usually   frequents   cold,  poorly 

drained    swamps    throughout    its    range.      It    sometimes    ascends    well    drained    hillsides,  but    is 

usually    stunted   in   such   situations.     It   makes   its   best   growth   on   moist   alluvial   soils  and   is 
very    tolerant    of    shade. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Black  Spruce  is  of  little  commercial  importance  in 
Pennsylvania  and  should  be  considered  for  forestry  purposes  in  extremely  swampy  locations 
only,  where  other  more  valuable  species  will  not  grow.  It  cannot  be  recommended  for  orna- 
mental planting  since  other  species  of  Spruce  far  surpass  it  for  this  purpose. 


NORWAY  SPRUCE. 
Picea  Abies,  (Linnaeus)  Karsten. 

FORM — A  large  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  50-80  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2  ft., 
but  may  reach  a  height  of  125  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  ft.  Trunk  straight,  continuous, 
slightly  tapering,  and  sometimes  free  from  lateral  branches  for  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  base.  Crown  less  acutely  pyramidal  than  that  of  our  native  species. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  roughened  with  large,  rather  thick  reddish-brown  scales;  on  younger 
trunks  the  scales  are  thinner  and  closer.  Used  in  tanneries  in  Europe,  but  only  slightly  charged 
with  tannin. 

TWIGS — Slender,    rather    pendulous,    light    reddish-brown    and    roughened    by    projecting    leaf- 


BUDS — Ovate  to  conical,  smooth,  pointed,  covered  by  overlapping,  sharp-pointed,  light  brown 
scales. 

LEAVES — About  i-1  inch  long,  sharp-pointed,  4-sided,  dark  green,  without  real  leaf-stalks, 
but  resting  on  decurrent  projections  of  bark  known  as  sterigmata. 

LEAF-SCABS — See  "Leaf -Scars"  under  Red  Spruce. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  pollination  takes  place.  Fertilization  takes  place  In 
June. 

FRUIT — A  cone  about  4-7  inches  long,  cylindrical-oblong,  pendant,  almost  sessile,  maturing 
at  the  end  of  the  first  season;  cone-scales  thin,  stiff,  rather  broad  reddish-brown  with  finely 
toothed  margin. 

WOOD — Non-porous;  resin  passages  present;  straight-grained,  strong,  not  durable  in  con- 
tact with  the  soil,  medium  in  hardness,  works  easily,  heartwood  yellowish-white  with  thin 
white  sapwood.  Weighs  30  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  pulp,  general 
construction,  interior  finish,  basket  making  and  for  masts  and  oars  on  small  vessels. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Norway  Spruce,  also  known  as  the  European 
Spruce,  can  readily  be  distinguished  by  its  large  cones,  which  are  from  4-7  inches  long,  and 
by  the  long,  pendulous  branchlets  terminating  the  lateral  branches.  The  sharp-pointed,  bluish- 
green,  4-sided  needles  will  also  aid  in  distinguishing  it  from  some  of  the  other  closely  related 
species. 

RANGE — Its  native  home  is  in  middle  and  northern  Europe.  It  forms  a  very  important  part 
of  the  forest  structure  of  Germany,  Switzerland,  Austria  and  Russia.  Planted  extensively  in 
the  United  States  for  ornamental  purposes  from  Maine  south  to  Washington  and  west  to  Kansas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — It  is  found  throughout  the  State  as  an  ornamental 
tree,  and  planted  rather  extensively  for  forestry  purposes  by  the  State  Department  of  Forestry. 

HABITAT — In  Europe  it  grows  in  valleys  and  upon  the  mountain  slopes.  It  prefers  rather 
rich  moist  soils,  in  this  respect  somewhat  resembling  the  White  Pine.  It  cannot  endure  very 
dry,  very  sterile,  or  extremely  rich  vegetable  soil.  It  is  rather  tolerant  of  shade  and  some- 
what susceptible  to  late  frosts. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Norway  Spruce  is  a  foreigner  in  our  forest  flora, 
but  before  long  it  will  be  regarded  a  naturalized  member  of  our  forest  structure.  It  will 
be  an  extremely  valuable  addition  to  the  list  of  species  of  forestal  significance.  To  the  present 
time  it  has  been  planted  mostly  for  ornamental  purposes  and  for  wind  breaks,  but  in  the 
future  it  will  also  be  planted  extensively  as  a  forest  tree.  It  grows  rapidly  and  is  rather 
hardy  and  free  from  organic  enemies  and  produces  valuable  wood.  A  noted  European  authority 
on  forestry  has  said:  "Spruce  is  the  best  paying  forest  species  in  the  world."  It  should  be 
planted  as  a  seedling  and  preferably  mixed  with  such  species  as  White  Pine,  European  Larch, 
Douglas  Fir,  Red  Oak,  White  Ash,  and  Tulip  Tree.  It  is  also  possible  that  it  could  be  grown 
at  a  profit  for  Christmas  tree  purposes. 


10 


PLATE  XXII.     NORWAY  SPRUCE. 


1.  Branch  with  stamina te   flowers,    x  1. 

2.  Branch  with  pistillate  flowers,    x  J. 

3.  A  needle,  natural  size. 

4.  Cross    section    of    a    needle,    enlarged. 

5.  Branch  with  needles  removed  showing  winter 

buds,    x    1. 
€.  Branch  with  needles  and  a  o<.m>.   x  \. 


7.  A  cone  scale  with  two  winged  seeds,  natural 
size. 

8    A  winged  seed,   enlarged. 

9.  A  seed,  enlarged. 

l(r.  A  seedling  shedding  a  seed  coat,  natural  size. 
11.  A    seedling,    natural   size. 


PLATE  XXIII.     HEMLOCK. 


needles  an<l 

ESS  ^ 


flowers 


. 

6.  A  seed,    enlarged. 

T.  Leafless  branch  with  buds,    enlarged 

8.  A  seedling,    natural  size. 


HEMLOCK. 

Tsuga  canadensis,  (Linnaeus)  Carriere. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION— This  genus  comprises  8  species  in  the  world,  4  of  which  are  native 
to  North  America  and  1  to  Pennsylvania.  Of  the  4  species  native  to  North  America,  2  are 
found  in  the  eastern  and  2  in  the  western  part.  The  2  eastern  species  are  the  Carolina  Hem- 
lock (Tsuga  caroliniana  Engelm.)  found  only  in  the  mountains  from  Virginia  to  Georgia,  and 
the  species  described  below.  The  Hemlocks  are  trees  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  found  in 
North  America  and  Asia,  but  absent  in  Europe.  The  eastern  species  in  particular  are  slow 
growers  and  difficult  to  transplant.  A  well  known  student  of  forestry  has  said,  "Hemlock  trees 
are  like  the  Indians,  they  will  not  stand  civilization." 

FORM — A  large  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  60-80  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2-3  ft.,  but 
may  reach  a  height  of  100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4  ft.  In  the  open  its  crown  is  dense,  conic, 
and  high  with  limbs  extending  almost  to  the  ground.  In  dense  stands  it  has  a  bole,  clean  from 
lateral  branches  for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  ground  and  with  little  taper. 

BARK — Grayish-brown  to  reddish-brown,  rich  in  tannin,  becoming  4/5  of  an  inch  thick  on 
old  trunks  and  roughened  by  long  fissures  separating  rather  broad  ridges  which  are  covered  with 
close  scales.  Innner  bark  is  cinnamon-red.  See  Fig.  53. 

TWIGS — Slender,  rough  on  account  of  decurrent  projections  of  bark  upon  which  the  leaves 
rest,  at  first  somewhat  hairy  and  yellowish-brown,  later  smooth  grayish-brown  tinged  with 
purple. 

EUDS — Alternate,   ovate,   1/16  of  an  inch  long,    blunt-pointed,   reddish-biown,    not  glossy. 

LEAVES — Linear,  flat,  about  i  of  an  inch  long,  rounded  or  notched  at  apex,  dark  green  and 
shining  above,  pale  green  and  dull  below  with  a  white  line  on  each  side  of  midrib.  The  leaves 
persist  for  about  3  years  and  are  jointed  to  short,  persistent,  woody  stalks.  They  are  some- 
what spirally  arranged  around  the  twig  but  appear  two-ranked. 

LEAF-SCARS — Small,    round,    raised   on   decurrent  projections  of   bark. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April  or  May.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  separate,  but 
usually  borne  on  the  same  branch.  Staminate  small,  globose,  yellow,  about  i  of  an  inch  long. 
Pistillate  oblong  and  pale  green. 

FRUIT — A  small,  short-stalked  cone  maturing  at  the  end  of  the  first  season,  about  1  of  an 
inch  long,  usually  persisting  during  first  winter. 

WOOD — Non-porous;  without  resin  passages;  light,  hard,  not  strong,  brittle,  coarse-grained 
not  durable,  liable  to  splinter,  diflicult  to  work,  light  brown  with  lighter  sapwood.  Weighs 
26.42  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  construction,  coarse  lumber,  and  especially  for  frame 
work  and  weather-boarding  of  buildings,  paper  pulp,  and  laths. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Hemlock,  also  known  as  Hemlock  Spruce  and 
Spruce  Pine,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  flat  linear  needles  with  two  longitudinal  white  streaks 
on  the  lower  surface;  the  needles  are  jointed  to  short  persistent  woody  stalks  known  as  sterig- 
mata  and  appear  two-ranked,  but  in  addition  to  the  two  conspicuous  lateral  rows  there  is  a 
rather  inconspicuous  row  of  small  needles  on  top  of  the  twig  extending  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  twig.  The  lateral  twigs  occur  rather  irregularly  along  the  main  branches  and  diverge 
from  the  latter  at  an  angle  of  usually  less  than  75°.  The  cones  are  about  I  of  an  inch  long, 
and  often  persist  through  one  winter.  The  inner  bark  is  cinnamon-red. 

RANGE — Nova  Scotia  south  to  Pennsylvania  and  along  the  mountains  to  Alabama,  and  west 
to  Minnesota. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Rather  commonly  distributed  in  moist  situations  through- 
out the  mountainous  regions  of  the  State.  Most  common  in  the  central  and  northern  parts. 
Scattered  in  local  groups,  in  narrow,  cool  ravines,  and  on  rocky  slopes  in  the  southeastern  and 
southwestern  parts. 

HABITAT— Usually  found  in  moist  locations  like  northern  slopes  of  rocky  ridges,  banks  of 
streams,  ponds  and  lakes,  swamps,  river  gorges,  and  mountain  slopes.  It  prefers  a  dense  forest 
structure  since  it  is  shade  loving  and  not  very  wind-firm. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— This  tree  yields  not  only  lumber  but  also  bark  rich  in 
tannic  acid  and  a  volatile  oil  to  which  a  medicinal  value  was  attached.  The  inferior  wood  which 
it  produces  coupled  with  its  slow  growth  and  the  difficulty  with  which  it  is  established  by 
planting  will  tend  to  decrease  its  prevalence  in  our  forest  structure,  especially  since  more  valu- 
able and  more  rapid  growing  species  like  Pine  and  Spruce  will  thrive  on  the  same  area.  Wher- 
ever it  can  be  regenerated  naturally  without  sacrificing  more  valuable  species  it  should  be  retained 
in  the  forest  structure.  It  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  if  not  the  most  attractive  of  our  conifer- 
ous evergreens. 


84 


BALSAM  FIR. 
Abies  balsamea,  (Linnaeus)  Miller. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — The  Firs  comprise  about  25  species,  of  which  number  10  species  are 
native  to  North  America  and  1  to  Pennsylvania.  They  are  usually  found  in  cold  and  temperate 
regions.  Eight  species  are  found  in  western  North  America,  while  only  2  species  are  native  east 
of  the  foot  hills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  1  of  which  is  native  to  Pennsylvania.  The  other 
eastern  species  not  native  to  Pennsylvania,  Abies  Fraseri  (Pursh.)  Poir,  is  found  only  in  the 
Appalachian  Mountains  from  Virginia  to  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee. 

FORM — A  medium-sized  tree  attaining  a  height  of  30-50  ft.,  but  may  reach  a  height  of  100 
ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  ft.  Usually  a  low  spreading  shrub  in  high  altitudes  and  high  latitudes. 
Crown  slender,  symmetrical  when  young,  and  sharp-pointed,  deeper  and  often  broader  in  older 
specimens. 

BARE — On  old  trees  reddish-brown  and  somewhat  roughened  by  irregular  scales.  On  young 
trees  smooth,  thin,  close,  grayish-brown,  and  marked  by  projecting  resin  blisters.  See  Fig.  50. 

TWIGS — Slender,  at  first  hairy  and  yellowish-green,  later  smooth,  and  grayish-brown,  usually 
arranged  opposite  one  another. 

BUDS — Clustered  at  end  of  terminal  twigs,  ovate  to  spherical,  about  1/6  of  an  inch  long, 
covered  with  very  glossy,  varnished,  orange-green  scales. 

LEAVES — Apparently  2-ranked  as  in  the  Hemlock,  linear,  flattened,  1  of  an  inch  long,  usually 
blunt  at  apex,  stalkless,  dark  green  and  shining  above,  pale  with  light  dots  below,  very  fragrant 
upon  drying. 

FLOWERS— Appear  about  May  or  June.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  separate  but  usually 
found  on  different  parts  of  same  branch.  Staminate  cylindrical,  yellow,  i  of  an  inch  long.  Pis- 
tillate oblong-cylindrical,  purple,  1  inch  long. 

FRUIT — An  erect,  oblong-cylindrical,  dark  purple  cone,  2-4  inches  long,  with  broad  round 
deciduous  scales  which  fall  off  and  leave  the  bare  central  axis.  Cones  mature  at  the  end  of  first 
season.  Seeds  about  J  of  an  inch  long,  winged,  and  borne  on  cone-scales. 

WOOD — Non-porous;  without  resin  passages;  with  no  distinct  heartwood,  light,  soft,  pale 
brown,  not  strong  nor  durable.  Weighs  23.80  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  with  Spruce  for  paper 
pulp,  crates,  packing  boxes,  and  occassionally  for  lumber. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Balsam  Fir,  also  known  as  Fir,  Balsam,  and 
Blister  Pine,  is  distinguished  from  the  other  native  conifers  of  Pennsylvania  by  its  smooth  gray- 
ish-brown bark  covered  with  projecting  blisters,  its  oblong-cylindrical  erect  cones  with  deciduous 
scales,  and  by  its  rather  flattened,  apparently  2-ranked  leaves  which  are  stalkless  and  leave  a 
circular  flat  scar  upon  falling.  The  leaves  of  the  Balsam  Fir  somewhat  resemble  those  of  the 
Hemlock,  but  they  are  not  jointed  to  a  woody  stalk  while  those  of  the  latter  species  are  jointed 
to  short  persistent  stalks  known  as  sterigmata. 

RANGE — Labrador  west  to  Alberta,  south  to  Pennsylvania  and  Minnesota  and  along  the  moun- 
tains to  Virginia. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Confined  almost  entirely  to  the  swamps  and  lake  re- 
gions of  Centre,  Clinton,  McKean,  Pike,  Monroe,  Lycoming,  Tioga,  and  Sullivan  counties.  It  is 
also  reported  from  a  few  other  local  outposts. 

HABITAT — Usually  inhabits  swamps  or  their  borders.  In  the  north  found  commonly  in  low 
swampy  bogs  but  in  the  south  usually  found  on  the  mountain  tops  and  slopes.  Generally  occurs 
in  mixture  but  may  occur  locally  in  almost  pure  stands.  Spruce  and  Hemlock  are  its  common 
associates. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— This  tree  is  of  little  commercial  importance  in  this  State 
on  account  of  its  limited  distribution  and  the  small  size  which  it  attains.  It  is  difficult  to  re- 
generate artificially  since  the  seeds  have  a  low  germinating  percentage,  and  the  subsequent  estab- 
lishment is  also  difficult.  This  species  should  be  regenerated  naturally  upon  such  areas  where  other 
more  valuable  species  will  not  grow.  The  Balsam  Fir  is  commonly  used  as  a  Christmas  tree  and 
it  is  possible  that  in  the  future  it  may  pay  to  raise  It  for  this  purpose. 


PLATE  XXIV.     BALSAM  FIR. 

1.  Branch   with   needles   and   staniinate   flowers,    x   J. 
£.  Branch  with  needles  and  pistillate  flowers,    x  i. 

3.  Branch   with   needles,    three   cones   and  one   cone  axis   from   which   the   scales   have  fallen,    x 

4.  A   cone   scale   with   two   winged   seeds,    natural   size. 

5.  A  winged  seed,   slightly  enlarged. 

6.  A   seed,    enlarged. 

7.  Leafless  branch  with  buds,   slightly  enlarged. 

8.  A  seedling,    x   4. 


PLATE  XXV.     WHITE  CEDAR. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,  x  1. 

2.  A   branch    with    needles   and   fruit,    x    J. 

3.  A  cone,   slightly  enlarged. 

4.  A  winged   seed,    slightly   enlarged. 

5.  A  seedling,   natural  size. 

6.  Portion   of   branch,    enlarged. 


85 


WHITE  CEDAR. 

Chamaecyparis  thyoides,  (Linnaeus)   BSP. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — This  genus  comprises  about  6  species  in  the  world,  of  which  number  3 
are  native  to  North  America.  Of  the  3  species  native  to  North  America  2  are  found  in  the  western 
part,  while  only  1  is  found  in  the  eastern  part.  The  latter  is  native  to  a  small  portion  of  Penn- 
sylvania. The  Cedars  are  not  very  well  known  as  forest  trees,  but  are  planted  extensively  in  this 
country  and  abroad  for  ornamental  purposes.  The  lumberman  is  Just  beginning  to  appreciate  th* 
value  of  the  wood  which  is  obtained  from  the  western  species. 

FORM — A  small  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  30-50  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  1-2  ft.,  but  may 
reach  a  height  of  90  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4  ft.  Trunk  straight,  continuous,  tapering,  and  bears 
slender  horizontally  spreading  branches  which  form  a  narrow,  pointed,  conical  crown. 

BARK — Rather  thin,  reddish -brown,  somewhat  furrowed,  peels  off  into  long,  fibrous,  film-like 
scales. 

TWIGS — Rather  slender,  somewhat  flattened,  at  first  bluish-green,  later  after  the  leaves  have 
fallen  they  become  roundish  and  reddish-brown.  The  terminal  twigs  are  often  arranged  in  fan- 
like  clusters. 

BTJDS — Very  small  and  inconspicuous,  usually  covered  by  the  closely  overlapping  scale-like 
leaves. 

LEAVES — Small,  ovate,  sharp-pointed,  bluish-green,  closely  overlapping,  scale-like,  4-ranked 
but  presenting  a  compressed  appearance.  Often  spreading  and  awl-shaped  on  vigorous  shoots. 
A  conspicuous  but  rather  small  glandular  dot  is  often  found  on  the  back. 

LEAF-SCARS— Not  present  because  leaves  persist  for  4  or  more  years;  then  die  and  dry  up 
upon  the  branches. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  March  or  April.  Staminate  flowers  oblong,  about  J  of  an  inch  long, 
with  10-12  stamens  on  shield-shaped  filaments.  Pistillate  flowers  globular,  about  1/10  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  with  about  six  shield-shaped  scales  each  usually  bearing  2  ovules. 

FRUIT — A  small  globose  cone  which  is  rather  common  but  Inconspicuous,  about  J  of  an  inch 
in  diameter  and  maturing  at  the  end  of  the  first  season.  .  Scales  of  cone  shield-shaped  and 
joined  to  axis  of  cone  by  stalk.  Outer  face  of  scale  Is  marked  by  a  Blight  projection.  Bach 
fertile  scale  bears  1  or  2  fertile  winged  seeds. 

WOOD — Non-porous;  light,  soft,  not  strong,  very  durable,  slightly  fragrant,  light  brown 
tinged  with  red;  sapwood  pale.  Weighs  20.70  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  in  cooperage  and  boat 
building,  for  fence  posts,  railroad  ties,  shingles,  and  woodenware. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  White  Cedar,  also  known  as  Cedar  and  Coast 
White  Cedar,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  characteristic  globose  fruit  with  shield-shaped  scales 
which  are  fastened  to  the  main  axis  by  means  of  short  stalks.  It  somewhat  resembles  the  Arbor 
Vitae  but  the  foimer  has  less  flattened  and  less  distinctly  fan-shaped  twigs.  The  twigs  of  the 
White  Cedar  are  not  so  stout  as  those  of  the  Arbor  Vitae.  The  former  also  has  bluish-green 
leaves  while  the  latter  has  yellowish-green.  It  can  be  distinguished  from  the  Red  Cedar  and  the 
Common  Juniper  by  its  more  prominent  glandular  dots  on  the  leaves  and  its  round  twigs;  the 
twigs  of  the  latter  species  are  3  to  4-sided.  It  also  lacks  the  awl-shaped  leaves  found  on  the 
Common  Juniper  and  usually  found  on  the  Red  Cedar. 

RANGE — Cape   Breton   Island  southward   along   coast   region   to   Florida  and   Mississippi. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Native  only  to  a  few  counties  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  State,  but  found  as  an  ornamental  tree  in  practically  every  part  of  the  State. 

HABITAT — Prefers  swamps  and  marshes  but  will  grow  in  dry  locations.  Occupies  many  swamps 
to  the  exclusion  of  other  tree  species.  In  the  south  it  Is  often  found  in  the  swamps  with  the  Bald 
Cypress  and  In  the  north  with  Arbor  Vitae,  Fir,  and  Spruce. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— This  species  is  so  limited  In  its  distribution  in  Pennsylvania 
and  the  wood  of  so  little  commercial  importance  that  it  cannot  be  recommended  for  forestry  pur- 
poses. It  may  be  recommended  for  very  swampy  locations  where  other  more  valuable  species  will 
not  grow,  and  deserves  to  be  planted  extensively  for  ornamental  purposes  since  it  is  one  of  the 
mopt  beautiful  coniferous  trees  of  eastern  North  America  on  account  of  its  attractive  form  and 
beautiful  foliage.  More  than  a  d.ozen  varieties  of  it  are  known, 


S6 


ARBOR  VITAE. 
Thuja  occidentalis,  Linnaeus. 


GENUS  DESCRIPTION — This  genus  comprises  4  known  species  in  the  world,  of  which  number 
2  are  found  in  North  America.  One  of  the  2  species  native  to  North  America  is  found  in  the 
eastern  part,  and  the  other  in  the  western  part.  The  species  found  in  the  western  part  attains 
a  large  size,  while  the  one  found  in  the  eastern  part  usually  remains  a  small  tree.  They  are 
best  known  as  ornamental  trees  but  furnish  some  lumber,  which  is  very  valuable  on  account  of 
its  great  durability.  The  bark  also  yields  tanning  material  and  the  twigs  and  leaves  contain  a 
volatile  oil  which  possesses  stimulating  properties. 

FORM — A  medium-sized  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  20-50  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  1-2  ft. 
but  may  reach  a  height  of  75  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3-4  ft. 

TRUNK — Taper5ug,  furrowed,  buttressed  and  often  divided.  Crown  dense,  conical,  very  high, 
and  often  covered  with  foliage  almost  to  the  base. 

BARK — Grayish  to  reddish-brown,  thin,  furrowed,  separating  into  long  rather  thin,  fibrous  and 
often  persistent  strips. 

TWIGS — Yellowish-green,  evidently  flattened,  somewhat  4-sided,  completely  covered  by  closely 
adhering  leaves,  zig-zag  or  arranged  in  fan-shaped  clusters. 

BUDS — Leaf-buds  not  scaly,    covered  by  closely  adhering   scale-like   leaves. 

LEAVES — Opposite,  scale-like,  closely  overlapping,  aromatic  when  crushed,  with  very  conspic- 
uous glandular  spots  on  the  thrifty  shoots,  i  of  an  inch  long,  of  two  kinds  in  alternating 
pairs.  Those  on  the  side  of  the  twigs  keeled;  those  on  the  face  of  the  twigs  flat. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April  or  May.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  usually  occur  on 
different  twigs.  Staminate  roundish,  inconspicuous  and  yellowish.  Pistillate  small,  ovoid,  pur- 
plish, with  4-6  paird  of  thin  oval  scales. 

FRUIT — An  oblong  cone  with  6-12  obtuse  scales,  $-$  of  an  inch  long,  reddish -brown,  matures 
in  one  season.  Seeds  oblong,  winged,  about  i  of  an  inch  long. 

WOOD — Non-porous;  resin  passages  absent;  light,  soft,  durable,  fragrant;  sapwood  almost 
white,  heartwood  yellowish-brown.  Weighs  19.72  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  fence  posts,  rails, 
shingles,  spools,  and  railroad  ties. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Arbor  Vitae,  also  known  as  White  Cedar 
and  Cedar,  may  be  distinguished  at  any  season  of  the  year  by  its  scale-like  and  closely  overlap- 
ping leaves  from  all  the  other  trees  native  to  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  except  the  White 
Cedar.  It  can  be  distinguished  from  the  latter,  which  also  has  scale-like  leaves,  by  its  more 
flattened  and  larger  twigs,  which  are  also  more  fan-shaped.  The  fruit  of  the  Arbor  Vitae  is 
oblong  with  thin  oblong  scales,  while  that  of  the  White  Cedar  is  spherical  with  thick  shield-shaped 
scales. 

RANGE — Southern  Labrador  west  to  Manitoba  and  Minnesota,  and  south  along  the  mountains  to 
North  Carolina  and  eastern  Tennessee. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— The  Arbor  Vitae  is  found  to  the  north  and  south  of 
Pennsylvania,  but  so  far  no  authentic  records  are  available  which  show  that  it  is  native  to  this 
State.  It  is,  however,  found  very  commonly  throughout  the  entire  State  as  an  ornamental  tree 
and  sometimes  as  a  hedge. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  in  low  swampy  situations  on  the  borders  of  ponds,  streams,  and  lakes, 
but  occasslonally  ascends  to  drier  ground.  In  the  north  it  is  often  found  in  the  sphagnum  bogs 
with  Spruce  and  Fir,  while  in  the  south  it  is  usually  found  ou  the  mountain  slopes  and  tops  with 
the  Spruce  and  other  coniferous  species. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Arbor  Vitae  is  one  of  our  most  valuable  species  for  or- 
namental purposes.  It  is  common  throughout  the  State  as  an  ornamental  tree  and  occasionally 
planted  for  hedges.  As  a  timber  tree,  however,  it  is  surpassed  by  many  other  native  spec! PS  and 
should  be  plaated  for  forestry  purposes  only  in  such  habitats  where  other  more  valuable  species 
will  not  grow. 


PLATE  XXVI.     ARBOR  VITAE. 

1.  A   flowering  branch,   x  J. 

2.  A   branch   with   needles   and   fruit,    x   J. 

3.  A   cone-scale   with    winged    seeds,    natural    size. 

4.  A   winged   seed,    enlarged. 

5.  A    seedling,    natural   size. 

6.  Portion   of  branch,    natural   size. 


PLATE  XXVII.     RED  CEDAR. 


J.  A  branch  with  pistillate  flowers,  x  i. 

2.  A  branch  with  stamina te  flowers,   x  5. 

3.  A  branch  with  needles  and  fruit,  x  J. 

4.  A   seedling,    natural   size. 

5.  A   branch    with    scale-like   needles    and 

6.  A  branch  with  awl-shaped  needles,  x  I. 


a   single   berry-like   fruit,    natural    size. 


87 


RED  CEDAR. 

Juniperus  virginiana,  Linnaeus. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — This  genus  comprises  about  40  species  of  trees  and  shrubs  in  the 
world,  of  which  number  16  species  are  native  to  North  America  and  2  to  Pennsylvania.  The 
Junipers  are  usually  medium-sized  trees  or  occasionally  shrubs.  This  is  possibly  the  most 
widely  distributed  genus  of  trees  in  North  America,  since  there  is  hardly  a  state  in  the  United 
States  in  which  some  one  or  a  few  of  the  species  do  not  grow.  They  have  little  value  as  timber 
trees  since  only  1  species  reaches  a  size  large  enough  to  produce  timber.  The  fruit  of  the  Junipers, 
usually  called  berries,  is  the  most  distinctive  character  of  the  trees.  These  berries  are  in  reality 
cones,  but  have  the  appearance  of  a  berry.  In  addition  to  the  species  described  here,  the  Com- 
mon Juniper  (Juniperus  communis,  Linnaeus)  is  also  native  to  this  State.  It  is  usually  a  shrub, 
and  found  only  locally  in  the  eastern  and  northern  parts  of  the  State. 

FORM — An  average-sized  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  25-40  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  1-2  ft., 
but  may  reach  a  maximum  height  in  the  south  of  120  ft.,  with  a  diameter  of  8-4  feet.  Crown 
usually  deep,  dense,  narrow,  and  conic,  but  occasionally  in  old  specimens  broad,  spreading,  and 
round-topped. 

BARK — Rather  tbiu,  often  grooved,  reddish-brown,  peeling  off  into  rather  long,  narrow,  stringy, 
film-like  strips.  See  Fig.  52. 

TWIGS — Slender,  usually  four-sided  and  green  as  long  as  leaves  persist,  but  after  leaves  have 
fallen  are  round  aiul  reddish-brown. 

BUDS — Inconspicuous,   because  they  are  small  in  size  and  covered  with  leaves. 

LEAVES — Two  kinds  are  recognized,  scale-shaped  and  awl-shaped.  Scale-shaped  form  is  typical 
of  the  tree.  They  are  about  1/16  of  an  inch  long,  ovate,  closely  appressed,  acute  to  round  at  apex, 
dark  bluish-gr^en,  sometime  glandular  on  back,  and  four-ranked  giving  the  twig  an  angular  ap- 
pearance. The  awl-shaped,  which  usually  occur  on  young  trees  or  on  vigorous  shoots,  are  narrow, 
sharp-pointed,  spreading,  scattered,  not  overlapping,  opposite,  in  2s  or  in  3s. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April  or  May.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  usually  occur  on  dif- 
ferent trees  but  occasionally  are  found  on  the  same  tree.  Staminate  short-stalked,  yellow,  con- 
sisting of  about  10  stamens,  and  produced  in  great  numbers.  Pistillates  small,  with  about  6 
spreading,  sharp-pointed,  bluish  scales. 

FRUIT — A  dark  blue  berry  about  J  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  often  covered  with  a  white  bloom 
and  maturing  at  the  end  of  the  first  or  second  season.  Flesh  sweet  and  covering  1-2  seeds.  Fruit 
often  persists  during  the  winter  and  furnishes  food  for  birds.  Some  think  it  necessary  for  the 
seed  to  pass  througa  the  alimentary  canal  of  birds  to  insure  optimum  germination. 

WOOD — Non-porous;  without  resin  passages;  with  distinct  red  heartwood  and  nearly  white  sap- 
wood;  light,  soft,  fragrant,  weak,  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil,  easily  worked.  Weighs  30.70 
Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  largely  for  fence  posts,  lead  pencils,  moth-proof  chests  and  closets, 
interior  finish,  furniture,  rustic  work,  pails,  and  tubs. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Red  Cedar,  also  known  as  Red  Juniper,  Cedar, 
and  Savin,  can  readily  be  distinguished  from  all  the  other  conifers  of  Pennsylvania  except  the 
Common  or  Dwarf  Juniper  by  its  berry-like  fruit,  if  present.  The  Common  Juniper  does  not 
have  the  scale-like  leaves  of  the  Red  Cedar,  and  the  awl-shaped  leaves  of  the  Red  Cedar  are 
generally  darker  on  the  upper  surface  and  not  regularly  in  3s.  The  awl-shaped  leaves  of  the 
Common  Juniper  occur  regularly  in  3s,  are  larger,  sharper-pointed  than  those  of  the  Red  Cedar 
and  diverge  almost  et  right  angles.  The  Red  Cedar  also  reaches  a  larger  size  and  is  usually  more 
erect,  but  bears  less  conspicuous  winter  buds.  See  "Distinguishing  Characteristics"  under  White 
Cedar  for  comparisons  with  this  species. 

RANGE — Nova  Scotia  west  to  Ontario  and  South  Dakota,  south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  The  Com- 
mon Juniper  has  the  widest  range  of  any  tree  in  the  northern  hemisphere. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Found  throughout  the  State.  Usually  solitary  and 
scattered  in  abandoned  fields  and  along  fences.  Sometimes  in  dense  pure  stands.  Pure  stands 
occur  in  Franklin,  Lancaster,  Montgomery,  and  Bucks  counties.  Common  on  red  shale  soil. 

HABITAT — It  will  accept  almost  any  location  from  a  swamp  to  a  poor  rocky  cliff  but  reaches 
its  best  development  in  the  swamps  and  alluvial  soils  of  the  southern  states.  Limestone  soil  is 
favorable  to  its  growth.  Abundant  light  is  necessary  for  optimum  development  but  it  will  tolerate 
shade  for  many  years. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Red  Cedar  produces  a  valuable  wood  but  grows  very 
slowly.  Other  more  valuable  and  more  rapid  growing  species  will  thrive  upon  the  same  areas  and 
bring  much  earlier  returns.  It  is  also  subject  to  the  attack  of  numerous  fungous  diseases,  espec- 
ially when  young.  Many  ornamental  varieties  and  forms  have  been  developed  which  are  highly 
prized  tor  landscape  work. 


88 


THE  WILLOW  FAMILY— SALICACEAE. 

The  Willow  family  comprises  about  200  species  belonging  to  two 
genera,  the  well-known  Willows  and  the  Aspens  or  Poplars.  The 
members  of  this  family  comprise  both  trees  and  shrubs  found  chiefly 
in  the  north  temperate  and  arctic  zones.  A  few  shrubby  species 
extend  far  into  the  arctic  regions.  They  usually  prefer  moist  habi- 
tats but  may  also  be  found  on  drier  locations.  One  is  very  apt  to 
associate  the  Willows  with  wet  habitats. 

The  flowers  appear  in  early  spring,  usually  before  the  leaves. 
The  staminate  (male)  and  pistillate  (female)  flowers  are  produced 
on  different  trees.  A  tree  bearing  staminate  flowers  does  not  bear 
the  pistillate.  As  a  consequence  one  will  find  fruit  only  upon  pis- 
tillate trees.  The  pistillate  flowers  are  fertilized  by  insects,  usually 
bees,  which  carry  the  pollen  from  the  staminate  flowers.  The  fruit 
consists  of  capsules  which  split  into  2-4  parts  and  are  arranged  in 
drooping  tassel-like  clusters.  The  fruit  matures  in  late  spring  at 
about  the  same  time  that  the  leaves  reach  their  full  size.  The  seeds 
are  small  and  surrounded  by  a  dense  covering  of  long  white  hairs 
which  aid  considerably  in  their  dispersal.  The  seeds  must  germinate 
soon  after  they  mature  or  they  will  lose  the  power  of  germination. 
The  bark  is  usually  rather  bitter. 

The  representatives  of  both  genera  are  noted  for  their  remarkable 
ability  to  grow  both  from  root  and  shoot  cuttings.  One  can  cut  a 
small  twig  from  a  tree,  put  it  into  moist  ground,  and  feel  assured 
that  it  will  grow.  They  also  sprout  very  freely  from  stumps  ir- 
respective of  the  age  of  the  stump.  The  following  key  will  distin- 
guish the  two  genera  belonging  to  this  family. 

KEY  TO  THE  GENERA. 

Page. 
1.  Buds  with  one  bud-scale;  bracts  of  the  catkins  entire;  stamens  fewer  than  10,  usually 

2 Salix  88 

1.  Buds  with  more  than  one  bud-scale;  bracts  of  the  catkins  fringed  or  lobed;  stamens 

usually   10  or   more Fopulus          94 


THE   WILLOWS— SALIX    (Tourn.)    L. 

This  genus  comprises  about  175  species  of  which  number  about  TOO 
species  are  native  to  North  America  and  about  15  species  to  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  members  of  this  family  are  met  as  trees  and  shrubs. 
Most  of  our  native  species  are  small  trees  or  shrubs.  Those  which 


89 

attain  tree-size  are  usually  found  near  buildings  and  have  been  in- 
troduced. 

The  Willows  produce  wood  which  is  light,  soft,  not  durable,  and 
weak.  It  is  of  little  commercial  importance.  The  value  of  the  Wil- 
lows lies  in  the  shoots  or  rods  which  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
baskets  and  furniture.  Some  reach  a  large  enough  size  to  be  used 
for  saw  lumber  but  the  trunks  are  usually  of  a  poor  shape  and  also 
begin  early  to  decay  in  the  center.  They  are  valuable  to  bind  the 
border  of  streams  by  means  of  their  interlacing  roots  and  thus  pre- 
vent erosion.  They  may  also  be  used  to  prevent  the  movement  of 
shifting  sands. 

Few  frees  possess  such  a  tenacious  vitality  as  the  Willows.  They 
live  a  long  time  after  they  appear  to  be  dying  and  repair  broken  parts 
very  readily  and  often  replace  them  with  new  growth.  They  repro- 
duce freely  by  means  of  sprouts,  cuttings,  and  seeds.  On  very  wet 
situations,  like  islands  or  the  borders  of  streams,  they  often  form 
dense  thickets  to  the  exclusion  of  almost  all  other  growths. 

The  Willows  as  a  group  are  easily  recognized  even  by  a  layman. 
They  have  a  characteristic  external  appearance  which  one  can  soon 
learn  to  appreciate.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to  distinguish  the 
different  Willows  from  each  other.  They  sport  and  hybridize  freely. 
Very  often  one  leaves  a  Willow  in  despair  because  of  the  fact  that  it 
was  impossible  to  identify  it.  Only  4  of  the  15  or  20  Willows  found 
in  Pennsylvania  are  described  below  because  many  of  them  are  mere 
shrubs  and  others  have  been  introduced  from  the  eastern  hemis- 
phere. The  Weeping  Willow  (Salix  babylonica  L.)  (Fig.  37)  is  very 
common  in  cultivation  and  in  some  localities  it  has  escaped  cultiva- 
tion. It  can  readily  be  distinguished  by  its  drooping  branches.  The 
Crack  Willow  (Salix  fragilis  L.)  is  a  native  of  Europe.  It  is  com- 
mon along  our  streams  where  it  reaches  a  large  tree-size.  The  lat- 
eral branches  are  very  brittle  and  after  a  windstorm  the  ground 
around  the  tree  is  usually  covered  with  branchlets  which  have  cracked 
off,  whence  the  name  Crack  Willow. 


KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES.* 

Page. 
1.    Leaves   persistently   hairy   at   least   beneath 8.    rostrata          93 

1.  Leaves  smooth  or  nearly  so  when  mature,   2 

2.  Large   tree;    leaves   narrowly    lanceolate 8.    nigra          90 

2.  Shrub  or   small  tree  rarely   20  feet   tall;    leaves  broadly   lanceolate,    3 

3,  Capsules  pubescent;  petioles  and  stipules  not  glandular;  buds  large,    S.  discolor          92 

3.    Capsules  glabrous;   petioles  and  stipules  glandular;   buds   small,    S.   lucida          91 

*It  is  not  Intended  that  this  key  will  enable  one  to  distinguish  all  the  species  of  Willow  found  in 
Pennsylvania.  It  simply  aims  to  point  out  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  four  species 
which  are  described  here.  Other  species  may  be  distinguished  by  the  use  of  Porter's  Flora  of 
Pennsylvania. 


90 


BLACK  WILLOW. 

Salix  nigra,  Marshall. 

FOEM — Largest  of  our  native  tree-willows,  usually  25-30  ft.  high  with  a  diameter  of  10-20 
Inches,  but  may  reach  a  height  of  60-80  ft.,  with  a  diameter  of  2-3  feet.  Trunks  usually  crooked, 
often  inclined  and  occurring  in  small  groups.  Crown  wide,  open  and  round-topped. 

BARE — Thick,  rough,  deeply  furrowed,  blackish-brown,  with  wide  ridges  covered  with  thick 
scales.  Ridges  of  bark  often  connected  by  narrow,  transverse  or  diagonal  ridges. 

TWIGS — Slender,   smooth,  brittle,   drooping,   bright  reddish-brown  to  orange  colored. 

BUDS — Alternate,  small,  about  J  of  an  inch  long,  sharp-pointed,  reddish -brown,  covered  by 
a  single  scale. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  narrowly-lanceolate,  very  long -pointed,  tapering  or  slightly  rounded 
at  base,  finely  serrate  on  margin,  usually  smooth  and  dark  green  above,  pale  green  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  narrow,  with  3  bundle-scars  in  a  lunate  line.  Terminal  scar  often 
larger  than  lateral  ones.  Stipule-scars  large  and  prominent. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  March  or  April  before  the  leaves.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  oc- 
cur on  separate  trees,  and  both  are  borne  in  drooping  aments  or  catkins  from  1-3  inches  long. 

FRUIT — A  reddish-brown,  smooth,  ovate  capsule  which  splits  open  and  liberates  many  small 
seeds.  Seeds  cohered  with  a  dense  tuft  of  fine  long  hairs. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  with  very  inconspicuous  medullary  rays;  reddish-brown,  soft,  weak, 
firm,  close-grained,  not  durable.  Weighs  about  28  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  mainly  for  fuel  and 
charcoal.. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Black  Willow  is  the  largest  of  our  native  Wil- 
lows. The  rough  thick-scaled,  blackish-brown  bark  is  characteristic.  The  narrowly -lanceolate 
and  short-petioled  leaves  which  are  always  smooth  or  nearly  so  are  also  distinctive.  The  trunks 
often  occur  in  small  groups.  The  slender  drooping  branches  are  easily  broken  off  at  their  ends. 

RANGE — New  Brunswick  to  Florida,  west  to  Dakota,  Kansas,  southern  Arizona  and  central 
California. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Throughout  the  State.  Most  common  in  eastern  and 
southern  parts. 

HABITAT — Prefers  moist  or  wet  situations  like  banks  of  streams  and  lakes.  Requires  plenty  of 
light.  Occasionally  found  on  moist,  gravelly  and  sandy  soil. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Black  Willow  is  the  largest  tree-willow  native  to  our 

flora  and  is  very  conspicuous  in  its  appearance.     It  is  of  no  present  or  prospective  value  except 

as  a  soil  conserver  and   to  a  limited  extent  as  a  producer  of  fuel  wood   and   charcoal.  Other 
more  valuable  and  more  attractive  trees  should  be  grown  in  place  of  it. 


PLATE  XXVIII.     BLACK  WILLOW. 

1.  A   staminate    flowering  branch,   x  1. 

2.  A  staminate  flower,    enlarged. 

S.  A   pistillate   flowering   branch,    x   i. 

4.  A    pistillate    flower,    enlarged. 

5.  A  fruiting  branch,  x  J. 

6.  A   seed   with    hairs,    enlarged. 

7.  A   winter  twig,    x  I. 

8.  Section  of  a   winter   twig  with   bud   and   leaf-scar,    enlarged. 

9.  A  leafy  branch,    x  5. 


PLATE  XXIX.     SHINING  WILLOW. 


1.  A  staminate  flowering  branch,  x  5. 

2.  A  staminate  flower,   slightly  enlarged. 

3.  A  pistillate  flowering  branch,    x  |. 


4.  A    pistillate    flower,    slightly    enlarged. 

5.  Section  of  a  fruiting  branch,   x  }. 

8.  A   branch    with    mature    leaves,    x    j. 


SHINING  WILLOW. 

Salix  lucida,  Muhlenberg. 


FORM— A  shrub  or  small  tree  sometimes  reaching  a  height  of  25  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  8 
inches.  TrunK  short,  bearing  rather  ascending  branches  which  form  a  rather  symmetrical  and 
broad  crown. 

BARK — Smooth,     thin,     bitter,    brown    to    reddish-brown. 
TWIGS — Shining,     yellowish-brown,     later    dark    brown. 

BUDS — Alternate,  smooth,  ovate,  pointed,  about  J  of  an  inch  long,  covered  by  a  single  yel- 
lowish-brown scale. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  broadly  lanceolate  to  ovate,  long-pointed  at  apex,  tapering  or 
rounded  at  base,  finely  toothed  on  margin,  smooth  and  shining  above,  paler  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,    somewhat   raised,   lunate,   with   3  conspicuous  bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  catkins  about  April  before  the  leaves  have  unfolded.  Staminate  and 
pistillate  flowers  occur  on  separate  trees.  The  staminate  have  five  stamens,  and  are  arranged 
iu  dense  flowered  catkins  about  1  to  1J  inches  long.  The  pistillate  are  arranged  in  slender  catkins 
from  1J-2  inches  long. 

FRUIT — A  narrowly-ovoid,  smooth,  dull,  evidently-stalked,  straw-colored  to  pale  brown  or 
greenish  capsule  which  is  evidently-rounded  at  the  base. 

WOOD — Same  as  that  of  other  Willows.    See  description  under  Black  Willow,  page  90. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Shining  Willow,  also  known  as  Glossy  Willow, 
may  be  distinguished  by  its  shining  leaves  which  are  lanceolate  to  ovate  in  outline,  and  by  its 
glandular  petioles  and  stipules.  The  shining  brownish  or  yellowish  twigs  are  also  characteristic. 
The  capsules  are  smooth  and  the  staminate  flowers  usually  have  5  stamens. 

RANGE — Newfoundland  to  Manitoba,   south  to  Pennsylvania,  west  to  Kentucky  and  Nebraska. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Locally  throughout  the  State  except  In  the  southern 
part. 

HABITAT — Prefers  wet  habitats.  Common  along  streams,  on  islands,  and  in  wet  semi-boggy 
situations. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Shining  Willow  is  a  very  common  shrub  or  small  tree 
in  wet  situations  throughout  this  State.  The  wood  is  of  no  commercial  importance.  The  tree 
often  acts  as  a  soil  binder  upon  areas  where  erosion  is  to  be  feared.  It  is  also  one  of  the  most 
attractive  of  our  small  Willows,  both  in  its  natural  haunts  and  artificial  environments. 


92 


GLAUCOUS  WILLOW. 
Salix  discolor,  Muhlenberg. 

FORM — A  shrub  or  small  tree  usually  from  6-15  feet  high  but  may  reach  a  height  of  25  ft. 
with  a  diameter  of  8  inches.  Trunk  short  and  bearing  stout  ascending  branches  which  form  a 
round-topped  crown. 

BARK — Thin,   smooth,   occasionally  scaly,    reddish-brown. 

TWIGS — At  first  hairy,   later  smooth,  stout,   reddish-purple  to  dark  green,   rather  flexible. 

BUDS— Alternate,  closely  appressed,  flattened,  pointed,  about  i-i  of  an  inch  long,  covered  by 
a  solitary  shining  reddish-purple  scale.  Flower-buds  much  larger  than  leaf-buds. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  elliptic  to  oblong-lanceolate,  sharp-pointed  at  apex,  rounded  at 
base,  coarsely  toothed  on  margin,  glaucous  or  white  beneath,  green  and  smooth  above.  Petioles 
and  stipules  i.ot  glandular. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,    somewhat  raised,    lunate,    contain   3  bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  March  on  twigs  of  previous  season's  growth  before  the  leaves  unfold. 
Stamina te  and  pistillate  flowers  occur  on  separate  trees;  catkins  densely  flowered,  with  brown- 
tipped  bracts. 

FRUIT — A    large,    hairy,    long-beaked,    light    brown    capsule. 

WOOD — Same  as  that  of  other  Willows.     See  description  under  Black  Willow,   page  90. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Glaucous  Willow,  also  known  as  Pussy  Willow, 
may  be  distinguished  by  its  lanceolate  to  elliptic  leaves  which  are  smooth  and  bright  green  above 
and  glaucous  beneath.  The  blossoms  are  thick,  about  half  as  wide  as  long.  Capsules  are  pube- 
scent. The  scales  of  the  blossoms  are  clothed  with  long  shining  hairs. 

RANGE — Nova  Scotia  and  Manitoba,   south  to  Delaware  and  Missouri. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Locally  throughout  the  State.  Rather  common  along 
the  main  strt-ams  and  their  tributaries. 

HABITAT — Prefers  wet  habitats  such  as  one  finds  along  streams,  on  the  border  of  lakes,  in 
swamps  and  semi-boggy  situations.  Occasionally  on  moist  hillsides.  Planted  specimens  often  grow 
on  rather  dry  situations. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Glaucous  Willow  produces  wood  which  is  of  no  special 
commercial  importance.  The  main  value  of  the  tree  lies  in  its  attractive  blossoms  which  appear 
early  in  spring  before  the  leaves  have  unfolded.  It  also  possesses  a  rather  handsome  form  and 
attractive  bark. 


PLATE  XXX.     GLAUCOUS  WILLOW. 

1.  A  staminate  flowering  branch,    x   J. 

2.  A   staminate   flower,    slightly   enlarged. 

3.  A   pistillate   flowering   branch,    x   5. 

4.  Section  of  a  fruiting  branch,    x  J. 

5.  A  pistillate  flower,   slightly  enlarged. 

6.  A  branch  with  mature  leaves,    x  J. 

7.  A  winter  twig,    x  J. 

8.  Section    of    a    twig    with    a    bud    and    leaf -scar,    enlarged. 


PLATE  XXXI.     BEAKED  WILLOW. 

1.  A    staminate    flowering    branch,    x    *. 

2.  A  staminate  flower,   slightly  enlarged. 

3.  A  pistillate  flowering  branch,   x  J. 

4.  Section   of   a   fruiting    branch,    x    J. 

5.  A  pistillate  flower,   slightly  enlarged. 

6.  A    branch    with    mature    leaves,    x    J. 

7.  A   winter   twig,    x   i. 

8.  Section  of  a  twig  with  a  bud  and  leaf-scar,   enlarged. 


BEAKED  WILLOW. 

Salix  rostrata,  Richards. 

IORM— fchrub  or  small  tree,  rarely  exceeding  20  ft.  in  height,  usually  6-10  ft.  high  and  3-4 
inches  in  diameter.  Trunk  short,  often  inclined  and  twisted.  Crown  broad  and  round-topped. 

BARK — On  trunk  thin,  smooth,  sometimes  shallowly  fissured,  usually  scaly,  bitter,  reddish, 
grayish,  or  olive-green. 

TWIGS — At  first  hairy,  later  smooth,  slender,  purplish  to  brown,  with  projecting  leaf-scars  and 
few  lenticels. 

BUDS — Alternate,  oblong,  narrow,  blunt-pointed,  about  £  of  an  inch  long,  covered  by  a  single 
light  chestnut-brown  scale. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  elliptic  to  oblong,  lanceolate,  short-pointed  to  sharp-pointed  at 
apex,  wedge-shaped  or  rounded  at  base,  sparingly  toothed  or  entire  on  margin,  dull  green  and 
smooth  on  nppei*  surface,  pale  green  and  prominently  veined  and  hairy  on  lower  surface,  1-3 
inches  long,  and  5-1  inch  wide. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  conspicuous,  lunate,  somewhat  elevated,  with  3  conspicuous  bundle- 
scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April  or  May  before  or  during  the  unfolding  of  the  leaves.  Pistillate 
and  staminate  Sowers  occur  on  different  trees.  The  staminate  have  2  stamens  with  smooth 
filaments  and  are  arranged  in  erect  and  terminal  catkins  about  1  inch  long.  The  pistillate  have 
hairy  and  evidently-stalked  ovaries  and  are  arranged  in  catkins  about  2-2}  inches  long. 

FRUIT — A   iiarrowly-ovoid,    hairy,    evidently -beaked   and    stalked    capsule. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  with  very  inconspicuous  medullary  rays.  Similar  to  the  wood  of  other 
Willows.  See  description  under  Black  Willow,  page  90. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Beaked  Willow,  also  known  as  Bebb's  Willow, 
may  be  distinguished  by  its  elliptic  to  oblong-lanceolate  leaves  which  are  usually  prominently 
veined  and  hairy  on  lower  surface.  The  pubescent,  evidently-stalked  and  beaked  capsules 
are  also  chavucteristic.  The  bracts  of  the  catkins  are  yellow  while  those  of  the  closely  related 
Glacuous  Willow  are  reddish-brown. 

RANGE — From  the  valley  of  the  Mackenzie  River  within  the  Arctic  Circle  and  the  valley  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  to  Alaska,  south  to  Pennsylvania,  and  west  to  Minnesota  and  Idaho.  One  of  the 
most  widely  distributed  species  of  Willow. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  in  the  northeastern  and  northern  parts  of  the 
State. 

HABITAT — Prefers  moist  or  wet  situations  but  will  grow  on  dry  hillsides.  Common  in  swamps 
and  along  the  borders  of  streams.  Jn  Canada  often  produces  twisted  stems  which  form  almost 
impenetrable  thickets. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— This  species  is  of  no  commercial  and  of  little  economic 
importance  m  Pennsylvania.  This  is  its  southern  limit.  It  remains  small  and  is  not  abundant. 
Like  most  of  the  Willows,  it  grows  in  wet  situations  and  will  aid  in  binding  the  soil,  thus 
preventing  erosion  and  wash-outs. 


THE   ASPENS   AND    COTTON WOOI>S— POPULUS    (Tourn.)    L. 

This  genus  comprises  about  27  species  native  to  the  north  temper- 
ate and  arctic  zones,  of  which  number  19  are  native  to  North  America 
and  4  to  Pennsylvania. 

The  trees  belonging  to  this  genus  have  many  common  names,  as 
Aspens,  Cottonwoods,  Poplars,  or  Popples.  Although  some  of  them 
are  called  Poplar,  still  they  are  in  no  way  related  to  the  well-known 
Yellow  Poplar  or  Tulip  Tree  which  belongs  to  the  Magnolia  family. 

The  leaves  of  some  of  the  representatives  become  very  conspicuous 
on  account  of  their  trembling  or  quaking  habit.  This  fluttering  of 
the  leaves,  even  when  only  a  slight  breeze  is  at  hand,  is  due  to  their 
laterally  compressed  leaf-stalks.  The  buds  of  a  few  species  are  evi- 
dently resinous  and  often  pungent.  Possibly  no  group  of  trees,  ex- 
cept the  Willows,  is  so  well  equipped  to  disseminate  its  seeds.  The 
seeds  are  very  light,  produced  in  great  abundance,  and  furnished 
with  a  dense  covering  of  long  white  hairs  which  aid  in  their  dispersal. 

The  wood  of  the  members  of  this  genus  is  just  beginning  to  be  of 
commercial  importance.  It  was  formerly  despised  but  is  now  used 
for  various  purposes,  especially  for  paper  pulp.  These  trees  have 
some  valuable  merits  in  that  they  grow  very  fast,  often  on  situations 
where  other  species  refuse  to  grow,  especially  in  wet  places,  and  may 
easily  be  reproduced  by  cuttings,  sprouts,  or  seeds. 

In  addition  to  the  4  species  described  and  contained  in  the  sub- 
joined key,  a  few  other  species  are  rather  common  throughout  the 
State  especially  as  ornamental  trees.  The  White  or  Silver-leaf 
Poplar  (Populus  alba  L.)  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  Asia  but  very 
common  as  an  ornamental  tree.  It  can  be  distinguished  by  its  lobed 
leaves,  covered  by  a  dense  white  persistent  wool  on  the  lower  surface, 
and  by  its  twigs,  usually  covered  with  white  cottony  felt  which  rubs 
off  easily.  The  Lombardy  Poplar  (Populus  nigra  var.  italica  Du 
Koi)  is  frequently  cultivated  in  this  State.  It  can  best  be  distin- 
guished by  its  form  (Fig.  36).  The  lateral  branches  are  almost  erect 
forming!  a  high  but  Inarrow  urown.,  The  leaves  have  flattened 
petioles,  are  finely  toothed,  smooth,  and  sharp-pointed.  The  Balm 
of  Gilead  (Populus  candicans  Ait.),  sometimes  regarded  a  variety  of 
the  Balsam  Poplar,  is  occasionally  found  as  a  cultivated  tree  and 
frequently  escapes  cultivation.  It  can  be  recognized  by  large  resi- 
nous buds,  reddish-brown  twigs,  and  its  ovate  leaves  with  round  or 
channeled  petioles  and  heart-shaped  base.  The  leaves  of  the  closely 
related  Balsam  Poplar  (Populus  balsainifera  L.)  do  not  have  a  cor- 
date base. 


95 


SUMMER  KEY  TO  THE   SPECIES. 

Page. 

1.    Leaves  with  round  or  channeled  petioles;  twigs  with  orange  colored  pith, 

P.  hetfcrophylla          98 

1.  Leaves   with   flattened   petioles;    twigs   with   white   pith 2 

2.  Leaves    brcadly    deltoid,    abruptly    acuminate;    stigina-lobes    expanded    in    all    direc- 

tions,      P.     deltoides          99 

2.  Leaves   brondly   ovate   to   nearly   round,    usually    acute   at   apex;    stigma-lobes   thread- 

like  3 

3.  Leaves  finely  serrate  on  margin;   bark  greenish-white P.   tremuloides          96 

3.    Leaves   coarsely   dentate   on   margin;    bark    yellowish-gray    to    black,    P.    grandidentata          97 


WINTER  KEY  TO   THE    SPECIES. 

1.    Terminal  buds  i  to  1  of  an  inch  long,  decidedly  resinous;  lateral  branches  with  a  tend- 
ency  to   become   vertical,    P.    deltoides          99 

1.  Terminal  buds  about  i  of  an  inch  long,  devoid  of  resin  or  only  slightly  resinous;  lateral 

branches  without  the  vertical  tendency 2 

2.  Twigs  with  orange-colored  pith P,  heterophylla          98 

2.  Twigs  with  white  pith,    3 

3.  Buds    smooth,    glossy,    conical,    sharp-pointed;    often    incurved    and    closely    appressed, 

bark    greenish-white,    P.    tremuloides          96 

3,    Buds    downy,     dull,    ovate,     blunt-pointed,     straight,     divergent;     bark    yellowish-gray 

to  black P.  grandidentata          97 


AMERICAN  ASPEN. 
Populus  tremuloides,  Michaux. 

FORM — A  small  tree  usually  30-40  ft.  high  but  may  reach  a  height  of  80  ft.  with  a  diameter 
of  20  inches.  In  Pennsylvania  usually  very  small.  Trunk  continuous,  tapering,  bearing  slender, 
brittle,  and  rather  ascending  lateral  branches.  Crown  high,  narrow,  rather  round-topped. 

BARK— On  old  trunks  thick,  deeply  fissured  and  black;  on  upper  portion  of  trunk  and  young 
stems  yellowish -green  to  white,  with  dark  blotches  below  the  branches.  Usually  whiter  at  high 
altitude. 

TWIGS — Rather  slender,  reddish-brown,  glossy,  smooth,  round,  sometimes  covered  with  a  scaly 
bloom;  marked  by  reddish-yellow  lenticels;  roughened  by  leaf -scars;  pith  white  and  6-angled. 

BUDS — Alternate,  narrowly  conical,  sharp-pointed,  smooth,  shiny,  usually  appressed,  often 
incurved;  covered  by  6-7  reddish-brown,  smooth,  shiny,  bud-scales;  basal  scale  of  lateral  buds 
outside. 

LEAVES— Alternate,  simple,  ovate  to  nearly  round,  cordate  to  truncate  at  base,  acute  at 
apex,  finely  serrate  on  margin,  1J-2  inches  long,  thin,  dark  green  and  shiny  above,  pale  green 
below.  Leaf-stalks  laterally  flattened. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  large,  conspicuous,  lunate,  with  a  cork-like  surface;  bundle-scars 
3,  simple  or  compounded.  Stipule-scars  linear,  blackish,  rather  distinct. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  occur  on  different  trees. 
Staminate  aments  drooping,  11-2J  inches  long,  bearing  many  closely  packed  individual  flowers 
with  6-12  stamcus.  Pistillate  aments  drooping,  1J-2J  inches  long;  when  mature  4  inches  long, 
bearing  relatively  few  individual  flowers  with  thick  stigmas  divided  into  thread-like  lobes. 

FRUIT — An  oblong-conical  capsule,  2-valved,  light  green,  borne  on  a  drooping  stalk  about  4 
inches  long.  Seeds  light  brown,  surrounded  by  a  mat  of  long,  soft,  white  hairs. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  medullary  rays  very  fine  and  Indistinct;  pores  very  minute,  invisible 
without  a  leus.  Fine  In  texture,  light  brown  to  white  in  color,  neither  strong  nor  durable. 
Weighs  25  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  paper  pulp,  boxes,  Jelly  buckets,  lard  palls,  spice  kegs, 
wooden  dishes. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  American  Aspen,  also  known  as  Quaking  Aspen, 
Trembling  Aspen,  Small-toothed  Aspen,  Popple,  Poplar,  and  Aspen,  may  be  distinguished  by 
the  round  or  ovate  leaves  which  have  a  finely  serrate  margin  and  are  short-pointed.  The 
petioles  of  the  leaves  are  decidedly  flattened  which  causes  them  to  tremble  or  flutter  in  response 
to  even  a  light  breeze,  whence  the  name  Trembling  Aspen.  The  alternate,  sharp-pointed,  conical, 
often  incurved,  closely  appressed,  shiny  buds  are  also  characteristic.  The  buds  of  the  closely 
related  Larg*-toothed  Aspen  are  stouter,  not  so  sharp-pointed,  usually  divergent,  and  covered 
with  a  flour-like,  crusty,  pale,  woolly  substance.  The  twigs  are  reddish  and  usually  smooth  while 
those  of  the  Large-toothed  Aspen  are  yellowish-brown  often  pale-downy  or  pale-scaly.  The  lateral 
branches  ara  more  ascending  and  the  bark  is  lighter  in  color  than  that  of  the  Large-toothed 
Aspen.  The  bark  is  yellowish-green  to  white  often  marked  with  dark  blotches. 

RANGE— A  transcontinental  species  extending  from  Newfoundland  to  the  Hudson  Bay  region 
and  Alaska,  south  to  Pennsylvania  and  along  the  mountains  to  Kentucky,  west  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  Mexico,  and  California.  The  widest  range  of  any  species  of  tree  in  North 
America. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  locally  throughout  the  State.  Most  common 
in  the  mountainous  part. 

HABITAT — Found  upon  practically  ail  soil  conditions  except  swamps.  Prefers  dry  situations. 
Common  in  abandoned  fields,  on  cut-over  areas  and  burns.  Frequently  mixed  with  Scrub  Oak 
which  shades  out  in  time. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  American  Aspen  is  of  no  commercial  importance  in 
Pennsylvania.  It  remains  too  small  and  is  too  local  in  its  distribution.  Next  to  Spruce  and 
Hemlock  it  is  the  principal  pulpwood  of  the  country.  It  is  also  beginning  to  be  used  for 
lumber.  The  wood  is  white  and  turns  well.  Ordinarily  it  is  a  poor  competitor  in  the  forest 
but  it  does  overcome  the  Scrub  Oak  upon  burnt-over  areas  by  shading  It  out.  It  is  also  valuable 
as  a  temporary  shelter  species  for  other  valuable  trees. 


PLATE  XXXII.     AMERICAN  ASPEN. 


1.  A  staminate  flowering  branch,    x  i. 

2.  A   staminate   flower,    enlarged. 

3.  A  pistillate  flowering  branch,    x  i. 

4.  A    pistillate    flower,    enlarged. 

5.  Section  of  a  fruiting  branch,  x  J. 


6.  A  seed  with  hairs,   enlarged. 

7.  A  branch  with   mature  leaves,   x  i. 

8.  A   winter   twig,    x  J. 

9.  Section   of   a    twig   with    a    bud    and   a   leaf- 

scar,    enlarged. 


PLATE  XXXIII.     LARGE-TOOTHED  ASPEN. 

1    A  staminate  flowering  branch,    x    J. 
A  staminate  flower,    enlarged. 
A    pistillate   flowering   branch,    x    J. 
A  pistillate   flower,    enlarged. 
A    fruiting    catkin    with    capsules,    x    J. 
A  seed  with   hairs,    enlarged. 
A  branch  with  mature  foliage,   x  J. 
A   winter   twig,    x    J. 
Section  of   a   winter   twig,    enlarged. 


97 


LARGE-TOOTHED  ASPEN. 
Populus  grandidentata,  Michaux. 


FORM — Usually  a  small  tree  30-40  ft.  high  but  may  reach  a  height  of  70  ft.  with  a  diameter 
of  2  feet.  More  frequent  and  larger  In  this  State  than  the  American  Aspen.  Trunk  continuous 
and  tapering.  Crown  often  irregular,  due  to  the  absence  of  branches  which  have  been  broken 
off  on  account  of  theii  brittleness.  Branches  usually  less  ascending  than  those  of  the  American 
Aspen. 

BARK — Near  the  base  of  old  trunks  black,  very  rough,  thick,  hard,  does  not  heal  over 
branch  wounds  rapidly.  Large  smooth  surfaces  found  on  flat  ridges  between  fissures.  Smaller 
branches  similar  to  those  of  the  American  Aspen  but  with  a  more  pronounced  yellow  color. 
See  Fig.  95. 

TWIGS — Rather  stout,  reddish  to  yellowish-brown,  round,  often  covered  with  a  coating  of  pale, 
woolly,  crusty  down  which  occasionally  peels  off  in  small  flakes. 

BUDS — Alternate,  ovate  to  conical,  pointed,  dusty,  dull,  usually  divergent,  covered  by  6-7 
light  chestnut-brown  scales  which  are  often  coated  with  a  dusty  flour-like  mat  of  a  pale,  woolly 
substance.  Basa!  scale  of  lateral  buds  on  outside. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  broadly-ovate,  wedge-shaped  to  cordate  at  base,  acute  to 
acuminate  at  apex,  coarsely  dentate  on  margin,  3-4  inches  long,  dark  green  above,  pale  green 
below.  Leaf-stalks  laterally  flattened. 

LEAF-SCARS — Same  as  leaf-scars  of  American  Aspen,   page  96.     Stipule-scars  are  less  distinct. 
FLOWEK.S — See  "Flowers"  under  American  Aspen,   page  96. 

FRUIT — An  ament  bearing  scattered,  light,  green,  2-valved  capsules  which  contain  minute 
dark  brown  seeds  surrounded  by  a  mat  of  long  white  hairs. 

WOOD — Same  as  American  Aspen,   page  96. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Large-toothed  Aspen,  also  known  as  Popple 
and  Poplar,  may  be  distinguished  by  its  coarsely  wavy-toothed  leaves,  larger  than  those  of  the 
American  Aspen  which  it  closely  resembles.  See  "Distinguishing  Characteristics"  under  the 
latter.  It  does  not  have  the  resinous  buds,  nor  the  ridged  bark  on  the  twigs,  nor  the  deltoid 
leaves  so  characteristic  of  the  Cottonwood.  The  bark  is  often  covered  with  oyster-shell-like 
bodies  whicn  are  the  armored  portion  of  the  oyster-shell  scale.  Many  small  trees  are  killed  by 
this  scale. 

RANGE — \ova  Scotia  and  Ontario  south  to  Pennsylvania,  along  mountains  to  North  Carolina 
and  west  to  Minnesota 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Rather  common  throughout  the  State  especially  on 
lumbered  and  burnt-over  areas,  in  abandoned  fields,  and  on  charcoal  hearths.  Usually  found 
in  mixture,  but  occasionally  in  small  pure  stands. 

HABITAT — Prefers  rather  rich  moist  soil,  but  is  also  found  on  dry  gravelly  soil.  Usually 
large  on  moist  situations  and  smaller,  often  scrubby,  on  very  dry  situations.  Frequent  asso- 
ciates are  Birch,  Bird  Cherry,  Shad  Bush,  and  Scrub  Oak. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Large-toothed  Aspen  is  of  no  commercial  importance 
in  this  State.  It  is  of  value  in  our  lumbered  areas  because  it  covers  the  soil  rapidly,  acts 
as  a  soil-conserver,  and  often  as  a  soil-improver.  It  may  also  act  as  a  temporary  shelter  for 
more  valuable  species  while  they  are  young  and  establishing  themselves.  It  also  aids  in  shading 
out  our  most  aggressive  forest  weed — Scrub  Oak. 


98 


DOWNY  POPLAR. 

Populus  heterophylla,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — In  the  north  usually  a  small  tree  from  30-50  ft.  high;  in  the  south  may  reach  a  height 
of  100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  ft.  Crown  high,  rather  broad  and  round-topped.  Trunk  short,  con- 
tinuous, and  tapering. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  thick,  light  reddish -brown,  rough,  broken  by  long  fissures  into  long 
narrow  plates.  Cn  younger  trunks  and  large  branches  thinner,  not  so  rough;  fissures  shallower 
and  ridges  smoother  than  on  old  trucks. 

TWIGS— Stout,  light  yellowish,  marked  by  a  few  scattered  pale  lenticels,  roughened  by 
elevated  leaf -scars;  pith  orange-colored. 

BUDS — Alternate,  broadly  ovate,  slightly  resinous,  bright  reddish-brown,  covered  with  4-7 
scales  which  arc  slightly  pubescent  towards  the  base.  Leaf-buds  about  J  of  an  inch  long. 
Flower-buds  about  i  of  an  inch  long. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  broadly  ovate,  cordate,  rounded  or  truncate  at  base,  rounded 
or  acute  at  apex,  coarsely  serrate  on  margin,  4-7  inches  long,  dark  green  above,  pale  green 
below;  leaf -stalks  round. 

LEAF-SCARS— Alternate,  large,  elevated,  often  3-lobed,  indented  on  upper  margin;  with 
3  conspicuous  bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — .Appear  in  March  or  April.  In  general  similar  to  the  Cottonwood  only  both 
staminate  and  pistillate  aments  are  shorter. 

FRUIT — A  drooping  ament,  when  mature  about  4-6  inches  long,  bearing  a  few,  scattered, 
dark  green,  3-4-valved  capsules  containing  small  seeds  surrounded  by  a  mat  of  white  hairs. 

WOOD — Same  as  that  of  Che  Cottonwood  only  slightly  heavier.     See  description  page.  99. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Downy  Poplar,  also  known  as  Swamp  Cotton- 
wood,  Black  Ccttonwood,  River  Cottonwood,  and  Swamp  Poplar,  may  be  distinguished  from 
all  the  Aspens.  Poplars,  ani  Cottonwoods  native  to  this  State  by  its  round  leaf-stalks.  The 
leaf-stalks  of  all  the  others  are  laterally  flattened.  The  leaves  are  large  and  more  bluntly 
pointed  than  these  of  the  other  species.  The  leaf-margins  are  not  so  finely  toothed  as  those 
of  the  American  Aspen  but  finer  than  the  other  two  native  species.  The  bark  on  old  trunks  is 
light  reddish  browu.  The  twigs  are  stouter  than  those  of  the  Aspens  and  contain  orange 
colored  pith.  The  Aspens  have  white  pith.  The  buds  are  bright  reddish-brown,  slightly  resinous, 
covered  with  scales  which  are  often  pubescent  near  the  base. 

RANGE — Connecticut  along  coast  to  Georgia,  west  to  Louisiana,  and  northward  to  Kentucky 
and  Missouri.  Its  range  suggests  a  somewhat  contorted  horseshoe. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Reported  from  Chester,  Delaware,  and  Franklin  counties. 
Very  rare  and  local.  Recent  investigations  indicate  that  this  species  is  probably  not  native  to 
the  State. 

HABITAT — Found  only  in  low  wet  situations,  and  always  mixed  with  other  species  in  this 
State. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  is  too  rare  and  local  to  be  of  any  commercial 

importance.      It  is    not    attractive    ornamentally    on    account    of    its    heavy    limbs    and    sparse, 

rounded    crown.  The    wood    is    not    listed    separately    on    the    market    but    bought    and    Bold 
at  Cottonwood. 


PLATE  XXXIV.     DOWNY  POPLAR. 

1.  A  staminate  flowering  branch,  x  J. 

2.  A  staminate  flower,   enlarged. 

3.  A  pistillate   flowering   branch,   x  J. 

4.  A    pistillate   flower,    enlarged. 

5.  Section    of    a    branch    with    a    fruiting    catkin    and    capsules,    x    1. 

6.  A  seed   with   hairs,    enlarged. 

7.  A  branch  with  mature  foliage,   x  J. 

8.  A  winter  twig,    x   J. 

9.  Section   of  a   winter   twig,    enlarged. 


PLATE  XXXV.     COTTONWOOD. 

1.  A  staminate  flowering  branch,    x   J. 

2.  A  staminate  flower,    enlarged. 

3.  A   pistillate    flowering   branch,    x    i. 

4.  A  pistillate  flower,  enlarged. 

5.  Section    of    a    branch   with    a   fruiting    catkin    and    capsules,    x    1. 

6.  A  seed  with  hairs,    enlarged. 

7.  Section  of  a  branch  with   mature  foliage,    x   4. 

8.  A  winter  twig,    x  J. 

9.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,   enlarged. 


99 


COTTONWOOD. 

Populus  deltoides,  Marshall. 

FORM — A  large  tree  usually  50-75  ft.  high  but  may  reach  a  height  of  more  than  100  ft. 
with  a  diamoter  of  6  feet.  Trunk  tapering,  continuous,  sometimes  clean  for  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  ground.  Crown  usually  high  and  pyramidal.  Lower  lateral  branches 
horizontal,  while  most  of  the  upper  branches  are  decidedly  ascending. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  thick,  ashy-gray,  roughened  by  long  deep  furrows  which  are  usually 
longitudinally  parallel,  and  often  connect  with  one  another.  Rather  thin,  smooth,  and  greenish- 
yellow  on  younger  trunks. 

TWIGS — Stout,  "usually  yellow  tinged  with  green  or  brown,  round  or  ridged  below  the  buds; 
covered  with  large,  longitudinally-elongated  lenticels;  pith  white  and  angular. 

BUDS — Alterrate,  large,  resinous,  glossy,  smooth,  chestnut-brown,  covered  with  numerous 
bud-scales  which  are  sticky,  resinous  on  the  interior  and  smooth  on  the  exterior.  Terminal  buds 
often  5-angled  and  larger  than  lateral  ones;  lateral  buds  usually  divergent  and  often  recurved. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  broadly  deltoid,  truncate  to  wedge-shaped  at  base,  acuminate  at 
apex,  coarsely  serrate  on  margin,  3-5  inches  long,  thick,  deep  shining  green  above,  pale 
green  below.  Leaf-stalks  laterally  flattened. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  large,  lunate,  elevated,  depressed  on  upper  margin,  sometimes  3-lobed; 
with  3  bundle-scars.  Stipule-scars  dark  and  conspicuous. 

FLOWERS— Appear  about  March  or  April.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  occur  on  different 
trees.  The  staminate  are  arranged  in  drooping  aments  3-4  inches  long  and  are  densely 
flowered;  the  pistillate,  in  drooping  aments  2J-3J  inches  long  and  sparsely  flowered. 

FRUIT — A  drooping  ament  bearing  dark  green,  3-4-valved  capsules  which  contain  small 
seeds  surrounded  with  a  mat  of  long  white  hairs.  Fruiting  aments  longer  than  in  the  other 
native  species,  8-12  inches. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  with  very  indistinct  rays;  pores  in  early  wood  visible  to  unaided 
eyes;  heartwood  dark  brown;  sapwood  wide  and  white;  wood  is  soft,  warps  easily,  and  is 
ditflcult  to  split.  Weighs  about  23  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  paper  pulp,  boxes,  crates, 
berry  boxes,  pails,  and  tubs. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Cottonwood,  also  known  as  Carolina  Poplar, 
Cotton  Tree,  and  Whitewood  may  readily  be  distinguished  at  any  season  of  the  year  by  its 
lateral  branches  which  have  a  tendency  to  ascend  like  the  Lombardy  Poplar  (Fig.  36), 
and  by  its  yellowish  twigs  which  often  have  prominent  ridges  running  down  from  the  leaf- 
scars.  The  bnds  are  larger,  more  resinous,  and  often  more  flattened  than  those  of  any  other 
member  of  this  genus;  usually  divergent  and  often  incurved.  The  leaves  are  very  character- 
istic since  they  have  laterally  flattened  leaf -stalks,  are  deltoid  in  outline,  truncate  at  the 
base  and  long-pointed  at  the  apex.  The  pores  in  the  early  wood  are  visible  to  the  unaided 
eye  while  those  of  the  American  and  Large-toothed  Aspens  are  not  visible. 

RANGE — Quebec  and  Ontario  south  to  Florida,   west  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Natural  distribution  is  very  limited.  Reported  from 
Presque  Isle,  Erie  county  and  from  Lancaster  county.  Locally  escaped  cultivation.  Planted 
extensively  for  ornamental  purposes  and  in  a  few  plantations  for  forestry  purposes. 

HABITAT — Prefers  rich  moist  soil,  like  banks  of  streams,  borders  of  lakes,  and  semi- 
swamps. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Cottonwood  is  planted  extensively  as  an  ornamental 
tree  but  as  such  it  has  few  merits  except  its  rapid  growth,  rather  attractive  form  In  winter, 
and  the  pleasant  balsamic  odor  from  its  coated,  young,  developing  leaves.  It  is  well  adapted 
to  wet  locations  and  may  be  planted  where  other  more  valuable  trees  will  not  grow.  It  grows 
rapidly,  and  produces  an  excellent  pulp-wood.  This  tree  is  known  to  grow  5  feet  in  a  single 
year  and  40  feet  in  10  years.  Cuttings  taken  from  trees  and  placed  in  the  ground  grow  very 
readily.  When  planted  in  the  streets  its  roots  often  lift  pavements,  and  clog  drains  and 
sewers.  Not  adapted  for  street  planting. 


100 


THE  WALNUT  FAMILY— JUGLANDACEAE. 

This  family  comprises  about  6  genera  with  35  species  of  trees  and 
shrubs  found  chiefly  in  the  warmer  portion  of  the  north  temperate 
zone.  Two  genera  with  about  19  species  are  native  to  North  Amer- 
ica. Both  of  these  genera,  Juglans  and  Carya,  have  representatives 
in  Pennsylvania.  The  former  genus  has  2  species  and  the  latter  5 
species  native  to  the  State.  In  addition  to  the  existing  species  a 
great  number  of  fossil  species  have  been  referred  to  this  family. 
Thirty  fossil  species  belonging  to  the  genus  Juglans  .and  10  species 
belonging  to  the  genus  Carya  have  been  described. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  families  of  trees  native  to  Penn- 
sylvania. Both  the  Hickories  and  the  Walnuts  yield  very  valuable 
wood.  The  wood  of  the  Walnuts  is  esteemed  especially  for  cabinet 
work  and  that  of  the  Hickories  on  account  of  its  strength  and  flexi- 
bility. The  bark  and  husks  of  the  Walnuts  are  used  sometimes  as  a 
dyestuff.  The  fruit  of  both  genera  is  edible. 

The  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  are  separate  but  borne  on 
the  same  tree  and  usually  in  the  same  branch.  The  staminate  flow- 
ers are  in  long  drooping  aments  while  the  pistillate  appear  as  buds 
and  occur  in  small  few-flowered  clusters.  The  leaves  of  both  genera 
are  compound  and  alternate.  The  fruit  is  a  nut.  The  nut  of  the 
Walnuts  is  sculptured  and  covered  with  a  fleshy,  indehiscent,  pulpy 
husk  while  the  nut  of  the  Hickories  is  not  sculptured  but  covered 
with  a  dehiscent  husk. 

KEY  TO  THE  GENERA. 

Page. 
1.  Pith  of  twigs  chambered;  nuts  sculptured  or  rugose  with  indehiscent  husk;  staminate 

catkins  thick,  compact,  usually  sessile  and  solitary;  wood  diffuse-porous Juglans  101 

1.  Pith  of  twigs  continuous;  nuts  smooth  or  ridged  with  dehiscent  husk;  staminate 

catkins  slender,  loose,   long-stalked,   in  3s;  wood  ring-porous,    Carya         lOi 


101 


THE   WALNUTS— JUGLANS,    L. 

This  genus  comprises  about  15  species  which  are  found  chiefly  in 
the  north  temperate  zone.  Five  species  are  native  to  North  Amer- 
ica, two  of  which  are  native  to  Pennsylvania.  In  addition  to  the 
native  species  a  European  species  known  as  the  English  Walnut 
(Juglans  regia  L.)  is  widely  distributed  in  the  Uui&d'v&t&tes  as  aa 
ornamental  tree.  It  is  this  European  species  which  yiejcjs  the  val- 
uable Circassian  Walnut  wood  used  so  extensively3  IF  rte/ wai}irfavv 
ture  of  furniture  and  it  also  produces  the  English  walnuts  so  com- 
mon on  our  markets. 

Our  native  species  produce  materials  which  are  of  considerable 
commercial  importance.  The  wood  is  highly  prized.  The  nuts  are 
delicious  and  valuable  as  a  food.  The  bark  and  husks  are  used  as 
dyes  and  tans.  The  wood  of  our  species  is  diffuse-porous  and  brown 
to  black  in  color.  The  leaves  are  alternate  and  compound.  The 
pith  is  chambered.  The  fruit  ripens  in  one  season  and  consists  of  a 
sculptured  or  rugose  nut  covered  by  a  pulpy  husk  which  does  not 
split  open  into  regular  segments.  The  kernel  of  the  nut  is  2-4 
lobed,  large  and  oily.  The  nuts  are  scattered  mainly  by  rodents, 
which  bury  them  for  food,  and  by  floods  which  carry  them  along 
their  courses. 


SUMMER  KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES. 

Page. 
1.    Leaflets    11-17,    often    viscid-hairy,    the    terminal    leaflet    usually    present;  tpith    dark 

brown;    bark    gray;    fruit   sticky-hairy;    nut    elongated-ovate J.   cinerea        102 

1.    Leaflets  13-23,    not  viscid -hairy,    the   terminal   leaflet  often   absent;    pith   light   brown; 

bark   dark   brown;    fruit   not   sticky-hairy;    nut   globose,    f J.    nigra.         103 


WINTER  KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES. 

1.  Bark  gray;  pith  dark  brown;  nut  elongated-ovate;  upper  surface  of  leaf -scar  not 
notched;  hairy  transverse  fringe  above  leaf -scar  present;  terminal  buds  evidently 
,  flattened,  not  less  than  J  of  an  inch  long,  J.  cinerea  102 

1.  Bark  dark-  brown;  pith  light  brown;  nut  globose;  upper  surface  of  leaf -scar  notched; 
hairy  fringe  above  leaf -scar  absent;  terminal  buds  slightly  flattened,  J  of  an 
inch  or  less  in  length J.  nigra  109 


102 


BUTTERNUT. 
-  ,-.  •    :     j   ;       Juglans  cinerea,  Linnaeus. 

1    FORM— A  small  to  medivin-sized  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  30-50  ft.  with  a  diameter 

.of  1-jJ  ft,.,  ,tut' may 'ref)'ch  a  freight  of  80-100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3-4  feet.  Trunk  usualy  short, 

"like  "  *Ffft    df    the    s.p.^le',  tree.      Crown    usually    broad,    deep,    round-topped,  rather    open,    often 
nmsymmetrical.' 

BARK — On  branches  and  young  trunks  rather  smooth,  light  gray;  on  older  trunks  roughened 
by  black  fissures  which  separate  wide,  smooth,  light  gray  ridges.  Inner  bark  bitter,  light  in 
color,  becoming  yellow  on  exposure.  See  Fig.  80. 

TWIGS — Alternate,  stout,  round;  at  first  hairy  and  sticky,  later  smooth;  roughened  by 
leaf-scars,  bitter  to  taste,  greenish-gray  to  buff  in  color,  covered  with  a  few  pale  lenticels; 
pith  chambered,  dark  brown.  If  chewed,  twigs  and  young  bark  color  saliva  yellow. 

BUDS — Alternate,  covered  with  dense  pale  down.  Terminal  bud  J-3  of  an  inch  long,  flattened, 
blunt-pointed  with  its  outer  scales  lobed.  Lateral  buds  smaller  than  terminal,  ovate,  very 
blunt-pointed,  often  superposed.  Scaly  cone-like  lateral  buds  often  present.  These  are  in 
reality  partially  developed  catkins. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  compound,  15-30  inches  long,  with  11-17  leaflets.  Leaflets  3-5  inches  long, 
serrate  on  margin,  acute  at  apex,  unequally  rounded  at  base  and  usually  sessile  or  nearly  so. 
Petioles  hairy  and  sticky. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  large,  3-lobed,  concave,  with  raised  margins,  with  3  clusters  of 
bundle-scars  arranged  in  a  U-shaped  line.  Upper  margin  of  leaf-scar  usually  convex,  rarely 
notched. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  half  developed.  Staminate  and  pistillate 
flowers  separate,  but  occur  on  the  same  tree  and  usually  on  the  same  branches.  Staminate 
arranged  in  nnbranched  catkins,  which  become  3-5  inches  long.  Pistillate  produced  in 
6-8-flowered  spikes. 

FRUIT — An  elcngated-ovate  sculptured  nut  covered  with  a  fleshy  indehiscent  husk.  Husk 
very  hairy  and  sticky.  Nut  four-ribbed,  pointed  at  one  end;  contains  a  sweet  edible  and  very 
oily  kernel. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous  with  ring-porcus  tendency;  with  inconspicuous  medullary  rays;  soft 
not  strong,  light  brown,  and  coarse-grained.  Weighs  25.46  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  in 
furniture,  interior  finishings,  and  occasionally  in  church  altars,  ceiling,  and  flooring. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Butternut,  also  known  as  White  Walnut  and 
Oilnut,  resembles  the  Black  Walnut,  but  is  distinguished  from  it  by  its  shorter  and  light- 
barked  trunk,  dark  brown  pith,  larger  and  more  flattened  terminal  buds,  lighter  colored  wood, 
elongated-ovate  fruit,  unnotched  upper  margin  of  the  leaf-scar  with  a  hairy  fringe  above  it. 

RANGE — New  Brunswick  and  Quebec,  west  to  Minnesota,  and  south  to  Delaware  and 
Arkansas,  and  along  the  mountains  to  Georgia. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Local  throughout  the  State  in  rich  bottomlands  and 
on  fertile  hillsides.  Very  common  locally  in  the  southeastern  and  southern  parts. 

HABITAT — Prefers  rich  moist  soil.  Common  along  fences,  streams,  and  roads.  Occasionally 
found  on  high  mountains. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Butternut  can  hardly  be  classified  as  a  valuable  timber 
tree.  It  produces  a  beautiful  wood  and  delicious  nuts  but  the  trees  seldom  reach  a  large 
size.  The  old  trees  are  very  susceptible  to  the  attack  of  wood-destroying  fungi.  The  tree  is 
attractive  ornamentally.  It  branches  freely  often  forming  many  crooks  and  crotches  which 
yield  the  highly  figured  wood. 


PLATE  XXXVI.     BUTTERNUT. 


1.  Branch    with    one-half    developed    leaves,     (s) 

3  unbranched  catkins  of  staminate  flowers, 
and  (p)  a  cluster  of  pistillate  flowers, 
x  I. 

2.  A   mature   leaflet,    x  J. 

3.  A    staminate    flower,     slightly    enlarged. 

4.  A    pistillate    flower,    slightly    enlarged. 

5.  A  cluster  of  mature  fruit,   x  J. 

6.  A  winter  twig  showing  buds,    lenticels,   leaf- 

scars,  and  pith,  x  J. 


7.  Longitudinal    section    of    twig    showing    cham- 

bered pith,    slightly  enlarged. 

8.  Section  of  winter  branch  showing  leaf-scars, 

hairy  fringe  above  leaf-scars  and  superposed 
buds,    slightly   enlarged. 

9.  A   nut   with   husk   removed,    x   |. 

10.  A  terminal  bud,    natural  size. 

11.  A    terminal    bud     (broad-side    view),    natural 

size. 

12.  Section  of  a   branch   showing   superposed   lat- 

eral   flower    buds,     enlarged. 


PLATE  XXXVII.     BLACK  WALNUT. 

1.  Branch   with    developing   leaves    and    (s)    three   solitary    catkins   of    staminate    flowers    and    (p) 

a  spike  with  three  pistillate  flowers,    x  *. 

2.  A  staminate  flower,  slightly  enlarged. 

3.  A   pistillate   flower,    slightly   enlarged. 

4.  A  branch  with  a  mature  leaf  and  fruit,    x   \. 

5.  A  winter  twig,   x  J. 

6.  Longitudinal   section   of   twig   showing   chambered    pith,    enlarged. 

7.  Section  of  twig  showing  superposed  and  gaping  buds,   and  leaf-scars  with   3  clusters  of  bundle- 

scars     and    notched    upper    surface,     slightly    enlarged. 

8.  A   nut   with    husk   removed,    x   J. 

3.  Terminal   section  of   winter   twig   showing   leaf-scar   and   terminal   bud    with   bud-scales,    slightly 
enlarged. 


103 


BLACK  WALNUT. 
Juglans  nigra,  Linnaeus. 

FORM— A  large  tree,  usually  attaining  a  height  of  80-100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2-3  ft.,  but 
may  reach  a  height  of  150  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  6-8  feet.  Trunk  usually  straight,  clean, 
slightly  tapering,  bearing  a  round-topped  crown. 

BARK — Semi-fibrous,  thick,  rough,  longitudinally  and  occasionally  diagonally  fissured.  Outer 
bark  dark  brown  to  grayish-black.  Inner  bark  light,  but  turns  yellow  upon  exposure.  See 
Fig.  81. 

TWIGS — At  first  hairy,  later  smooth,  orange-brown  to  dark  brown,  stout,  covered  with 
rather  inconspicuous,  somewhate  raised  lenticels;  pith  light  brown,  chambered. 

BUDS — Alternate,  covered  with  thick,  pubescent  scales.  Terminal  buds  usually  less  than 
J  of  an  inch  long,  flattened,  ovate,  blunt-pointed.  Lateral  buds  usually  less  than  1/6  of  an 
inch  long,  obtuse  at  apex,  often  superposed. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  compound  with  13-23  leaflets.  Leaflets  3-4  Inches  long,  oblique  at  base, 
acute  at  apex,  serrate  on  margin,  almost  sessile  and  arranged  opposite  or  alternate  to  each 
other. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  large,  3-lobed,  often  heart-shaped,  raised;  upper  margin  notched 
in  which  an  axillary  bud  is  often  located.  Bundle-scars  grouped  in  three  clusters,  arranged 
in  a  U-shaped  line. 

FLOWEHS — Appear  in  May  when  the  leaves  are  about  half  developed.  Staminate  and 
pistillate  flowers  separate,  but  occar  on  same  tree  and  usually  on  same  branch.  Staminate 
arranged  in  unbranched  catkins.  Pistillate  produced  in  2-5-flowered  spikes. 

FRUIT — A  sculptured  nut  with  a  fleshy  indehiscent  covering.  Nut  round,  very  rough,  1-2 
inches  in  diameter,  occurs  solitary,  in  pairs,  sometimes  in  3s;  contains  an  edible  somewhat 
oily  kernel. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous  with  a  ring-porous  tendency;  medullary  rays  inconspicuous;  rich  dark 
brown,  very  durable,  hard,  strong,  splits  easily,  takes  glue  well.  Weighs  38.11  Ibs.  per 
cubic  foot.  Used  In  furniture,  interior  finishings,  musical  instruments,  automobiles,  sewing 
machines,  fire-arms. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Black  Walnut,  also  known  as  Walnut,  some- 
what resembles  the  Butternut  or  White  Walnut  but  bears  little  resemblance  to  other  trees. 
It  may  be  distinguished  from  the  Butternut  by  its  light  brown  chambered  pith,  shorter  and 
less  flattened  terminal  buds,  darker  bark,  larger  size,  more  globose  nut,  notched  upper  margins 
of  leaf -scars,  and  the  absence  of  a  hairy  fringe  above  the  leaf -scar. 

RANGE — New  England  and  New  York  to  Minnesota,   and  south  to  Florida. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Local  throughout  the  State  In  rich  bottomlands  and 
on  fertile  hillsides. 

HABITAT — Prefers  rich  moist  soil.  Requires  plenty  of  light  and  deep  soil  since  it  is 
evidently  tap-rooted. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Black  Walnut  Is  one  of  the  most  valuable  timber  trees 
native  to  this  State.  It  reaches  a  large  size,  is  attractive  ornamentally,  and  produces  wood 
valuable  for  its  color,  figure,  and  the  fine  polish  which  it  takes.  The  nuts  are  highly  prized. 
Forest  grown  trees  rarely  produce  much  fruit.  Open  grown  trees  produce  abundant  fruit 
and  often  highly  figured  wood. 


104 


THE  HICKORIES— CARYA,  Nuttall. 

The  Hickories  and  the  Walnuts  belong  to  the  same  family.  All 
species  of  Hickory,  so  far  as  known,  are  native  to  the  part  of  North 
America  lying  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Geological  records  in- 
form us  that  the  ancient  forests  of  hickory  extended  into  Greenland 
and  Europe.  None  of  the  fossil  species  shows  evidence  of  living  after 
the  ice  age.  This  suggests  the  presumption  that  the  hickory  forests 
were  completely  destroyed  by  sheets  of  ice  advancing  from  the  North 
towards  the  South.  These  sheets  covered  a  large  part  of  Europe 
and  North  America.  To-day  no  native  species  of  Hickory  are  found 
in  Europe,  showing  that  they  were  completely  exterminated  during 
the  ice  age.  In  North  America  the  ice  covered  only  a  portion  of  the 
range  of  hickory.  Hickory  is  found  today  not  only  in  the  non- 
glaciated  region  of  North  America  but  in  addition  it  has  regained 
some  of  the  lost  territory.  The  northern  limit  of  Hickory  is,  how- 
ever, still  about  1,000  miles  south  of  its  northern  limit  in  the  ancient 
flora  of  Greenland.  The  range  of  some  of  the  more  important  species 
of  Hickory  has  been  extended  by  man. 

The  Hickories  have  alternate,  compound  and  odd-pinnate  leaves. 
The  leaf-scars  are  large  and  conspicuous.  The  flowers  'are  unisex- 
ual. The  staminate  or  male  (poll  en -bearing)  flowers  are  produced  in 
long  slender,  drooping  aments.  The  aments  are  usually  in  3s,  united 
near  the  base  of  twig  into  a  common  stalk  which  is  attached  to  the 
twig  at  the  base  of  the  new  growth.  The  pistillate  or  female  flowers 
which  develop  into  the  fruit  occur  at  the  end  of  the  season's  twigs  in 
spike-like  clusters  of  2-0.  The  fruit  resulting  from  the  development 
of  the  pistillate  flowers  matures  in  one  season.  The  nuts  are  ovoid 
to  cylindrical  and  covered  with  a  husk  which  is  4-valved.  In  most 
species  the  husk  splits  open  at  least  to  the  middle  when  it  becomes 
dry  but  in  a  few  species  it  separates  very  little. 

The  Hickories  are  amongst  our  most  important  timber  trees.  They 
are  not  important  because  they  produce  a  large  quantity  of  wood 
but  because  they  produce  a  special  quality  of  wood  used  for  special 
purposes  for  which  no  substitutes  have  been  found.  The  wood  is 
unsurpassed  for  such  uses  where  strength  combined  with  lightness 
is  desired.  It  is  largely  used  for  handles  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  our  best  carriages,  especially  in  the  construction  of  the  wheels. 
Not  all  of  the  species,  however,  produce  valuable  wood.  The  wood 
of  the  Bitter  Nut  Hickory  is  relatively  of  little  value.  The  nuts  of 
a  few  species  are  edible.  These  nuts  were  used  for  food  and  for 
oil  by  the  Indians  and  at  the  present  time  they  are  used  extensively 


105 

for  food.    The  most  valuable  and  edible  nuts  are  obtained  from  the 
Shag-bark  Hickory  (Carya  ovata). 

This  genus  comprises  about  10  species  found  in  eastern  North 
America  and  1  species  in  Mexico.  Six  species  are  native  to  this 
State.  One  species,  the  small-fruited  Hickory  (Carya  microcarpa, 
Nutt. ) ,  sometimes  considered  a  variety  of  the  Pignut  Hickory,  is  found 
locally  in  the  State  but  not  described  in  this  publication.  In  addi- 
tion to  our  native  species  the  Pecan  Hickory  (Carya  illinoensis)  is 
planted  extensively  for  ornamental  purposes  and  for  the  sweet  nuts 
which  it  produces. 

SUMMER  KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES. 

Page. 
1.    Leaflets  7-11,    small,    lanceolate,    usually   curved C.    cordiformis         110 

1.  Leaflets  5-7,  larger,   broader  than  lanceolate,   rarely  curved 2 

2.  Husk  of  fruit  splits  tardily  into  4  valves;  valves  of  fruit  thin  and  rather  friable  at 

maturity;   twigs  smooth,   relatively  slender,   cherry-colored  to  gray 0.  glabra        109 

2.  Husk    of    fruit    splits    promptly    into   4    valves;    valves    of    fruit    thick    and    hard    at 

maturity;  twigs  often  hairy  towards  tip,  rather  stout,  buff,  gray,  or  brownish 3 

3,  Bark  closo,  rough  but  not  shaggy  on  old  trunks;  twigs  relatively  stout;  foliage  scurfy 

or    pubescent C.    alba        108 

3.  Bark   shaggy   separating   into   long   plates   on  old   trunks;    twigs  not   so  stout;    foliage 

smooth -or  sometimes  downy  beneath,    4 

4.  Leaflets  usually  7;  nuts  dull  white  or  yellowish  and  pointed  at  both  ends,   C.  laciniosa        107 
4.    Leaflets  usually  5;   nuts  white,    rounded  or  notched  at  the  base,    C.   ovata        106 


WINTER  KEY  TO   THE    SPECIES. 

1.    Buds    yellow    with    4-6    bud-scales    valvate    in    pairs;    lateral    buds    often    evidently- 
stalked;    terminal   buds   elongated   and    flattened C.    cordiformis         110 

1.  Buds  not  yellow,   truly  scaly;  bud-scales  10  or  more  usually  overlapping,   except  outer 

ones    on    lateral   buds    which    may    form    a    closed    sac    but    in    time    split    from    the 
top;    inner   scales,   hairy, 2 

2.  Buds  small;    terminal  buds   1/5  to  2/5  of  an   inch   long,    their  outer   scales   glandular 

dotted;    twigs    smooth,    relatively    slender,    cherry-colored    to    gray;    husk    of    fruit 

thin,   not  freely  splitting  to  base,   with  thin-shelled  nut,,  .-  C.   glabra         109 

2.  Buds    large;    terminal    buds    2/5    to    3/5    of    an    inch    long,    their    outer    scales    almost 

glandless;    twigs   often    hairy    towards    tip,    rather    stout,    buff,    gray,    or    brownish, 
husk  of  fruit  thick,    freely   splitting   to  base 3 

3.  Twigs    relatively    stout;    bark    rough    and    close,     not    shaggy;    nut    brownish,     thick- 

shelled,     with    small    kernel;    terminal    buds    broadly-ovate    with    their    outer    scales 

early    deciduous, , C.    alba        108 

3.  Twigs   not    so    stout;    bark    shaggy;    nut    white,  'dull-white,    or    yellowish    with    large 

kernel;   terminal  buds   elongate-ovate   with    their    outer  scales   tardily    deciduous 4 

4.  Nuts  dull  white  or  yellowish  and  pointed  at  both  ends C,   laciniosa        107 

4.    Nuts  white,    rounded  or  notched  at  the  base,    0.   ovata        106 


100 

SHELL-BARK  HICKORY. 
Carya  ovata,  (Miller)  K.  Koch. 

FORM— A  large  tree  usually  reaching  a  height  of  50-75  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2  ft.  but 
may  reach  a  height  of  120  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3-4  feet.  Trunk  straight,  slender,  in  dense 
stands  free  from  branches  for  the  greater  part  of  its  length;  in  open  grown  trees  short,  with 
an  oblong-cylindrical  high  crown. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  shaggy,  light  gray,  2/5-1  inch  thick,  peeling  off  in  rough  strips  or 
plates  which  are  usually  loose  at  both  ends  and  fastened  in  the  middle.  On  young  trunks  smooth 
and  light  gray.  See  Pig.  88. 

TWIGS — Intermediate  in  thickness  between  the  Mocker  Nut  and  the  Pignut  Hickory,  usually 
slightly  downy,  sometimes  smooth  anl  glossy;  reddish-brown  to  grayish,  covered  with  numerous 
conspicuous  and  longitudinally-elongated  lenticels;  pith  angular. 

BUDS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked.  Terminal  bud  broadly  ovate,  blunt-pointed,  2/5-4/5 
of  an  inch  long,  usrally  covered  by  about  10  bud-scales.  The  8-4  outer  scales  dark  brown, 
broadly  triangular,  sharp-pointed,  often  hairy  especially  along  margin,  sometimes  smooth, 
and  often  with  the  apex  terminating  in  a  long  rigid  point.  Inner  scales  increase  In  size  in 
spring,  are  tardily  deciduous,  yellowish -green  or  reddish,  densely  downy  on  outer  surface  and 
smooth  within. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  compound,  with  5-7  leaflets,  8-14  inches  long.  Leaflets  differ  In  size; 
basal  pair  small,  relatively  short  and  widest  near  the  base;  upper  pair  obovate  and  larger  than 
basal  pair;  terminal  large  and  obovate.  Leaflets  serrate  on  margin,  acute  at  apex,  tapering 
or  rounded  at  base,  usually  smooth  but  sometimes  hairy  on  lower  surface. 

LEAF-SCARS — Altornate,  more  than  2-ranked,  large,  conspicuous,  somewhat  raised,  heart- 
shaped  or  3-lobed  or  inversely-triangular  or  sometimes  elliptical,  containing  numerous  con- 
spicuous bundle-scars  which  are  distributed  irregularly  or  grouped  in  3  clusters  or  arranged  In 
a  curved  line. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  almost  fully  developed.  Staminate  and  pistil- 
late flowers  occur  separately.  Staminate  hairy  and  arranged  In  aments  which  are  clustered 
In  3s  and  4-5  inches  long.  Pistillate  rusty-woolly  arranged  in  2-5  large  spikes. 

FRUIT — Globular  or  depressed  at  apex,  1-2  inches  long,  with  a  thick  husk  which  splits  into  four 
pieces  completely  to  the  base.  Nut  white,  oblong,  somewhat  flattened,  ridged,  barely  tipped  with 
a  point,  with  thin  shell  and  large  sweot  kernel. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  pores  of  summer  wood  rather  large,  isolated,  rather  evenly  distributed, 
not  in  groups  or  lines;  medullary  rays  rather  abundant  but  Inconspicuous;  conspicuous  lines  of 
wood  parenchyma  present.  Wood  very  heavy,  hard,  strong,  tough,  elastic,  close-grained,  usually 
straight-grained,  not  durable  in  contact  with  soil.  Heartwood  light  brown  or  reddish  with  white 
sapwood.  Weighs  from  50  to  52  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  chiefly  for  handles  and  light  vehicles. 
Valuable  for  fuel  and  smoking  meat. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Shell -bark  Hickory,  also  known  as  Shag-bark 
Hickory,  can  be  distinguished  from  the  Bitter  Nut  Hickory  by  means  of  its  larger  many-scaled 
buds  which  are  not  flattened  nor  yellow,  and  by  its  bark  which  is  shaggy,  while  that  of  the  latter 
is  close  and  rough.  The  bark  of  the  Pignut  Hickory,  is  also  close  and  rough.  The  Pignut  Hickory 
has  scaly  buds  but  they  are  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  Shell-bark  Hickory.  The  fruit  of  both 
the  Pignut  Hickory  and  Bitter  Nut  Hickory  Is  smaller  and  has  a  thin  tardily  or  non-splitting  husk 
and  a  small  bitter  kernel,  and  their  leaves  are  smoother  and  their  leaflets  narrower  than  those 
of  the  Shell-bark  Hickories.  The  Mocker  Nut  Hickory  has  stouter  twigs,  scurfler  pubescent  foliage, 
closer  and  rougher  bark,  and  browner  nuts  with  a  small  kernel.  For  distinguishing  characteristics 
between  Carya  ovata  and  Carya  laciniosa,  see  page  107. 

RANGE — Quebec  west  to  Minnesota  and  south  to  Florida  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Most  common  in  the  southeastern  and  southwestern  parts 
of  the  State.  Rare  in  the  mountainous  parts,  except  locally  In  the  valleys.  Rather  abundant  lo- 
cally east  of  the  Allegheny  mountains  especially  in  the  fertile  valleys  and  along  the  rich  foothills. 
Reported  rather  abundant  locally  in  the  northern  part. 

HABITAT — Prefers  rich  moist  soil  and  plenty  of  light.  Common  In  the  valley  and  in  moist 
hillside  woods.  Also  common  along  streams,  and  on  the  border  of  swamps. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  Is  a  very  important  species  on  account  of  the  valuable 
wood  and  nuts  which  It  produces.  It  is  not  very  common  in  the  State  as  a  whole,  but  where 
it  does  occur  it  should  be  protected  and  regenerated  as  much  as  possible.  Seeds  should  be  planted 
rather  than  seedlings  because  the  latter  are  sensitive  to  transplanting  on  account  of  their  long 
taproot. 


PLATE  XXXVIII.     SHELL-BARK  HICKORY. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,    x  J.     . 

2.  A  branch  with  fruit  and  a  mature  leaf,  x  i. 

3.  A  nut  with  part  of  husk  removed,  x  J. 

4.  A   nut,    x   J. 

5.  Cross-section   of  a   nut   showing  kernel,    x  J. 

6.  A  winter  twig,  x  J. 

7.  Terminal  part  of  a  winter  twig,    natural   size. 

8.  Section   of   a  winter   twig   showing  a   lateral   bud   and   leaf-scar,    enlarged. 


PLATE  XXXIX.     BIG  SHELL-BARK  HICKORY. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,    x  5. 

2.  A  branch  with  fruit  and  a  mature  leaf,   x  i. 

3.  A  nut,  x  J. 

4.  Cross-section  of  a  nut,    x   J. 

5.  A  winter  twig,   x  J. 

6.  Terminal    part    of    a    winter    twig,    slightly    enlarged. 

7.  A   leaf -scar  with   bundle-scars,    slightly   enlarged. 


107 


BIG  SHELL-BARK  HICKORY. 
Carya  laciniosa,  (Michaux  f.)  Loudon. 

FORM — In  general  it  is  the  same  as  the  Shell-bark  (Carya  ovata)  except  that  it  does  not  attain 
so  large  a  diameter.  When  grown  in  a  dense  forest  its  trunk  is  very  long,  clean,  and  slightly 
tapering. 

BARK — Same  as  Shell-bark  Hickory   (Carya  ovata)   or  probably  somewhat  less  shaggy. 

TWIGS — Stout,  usually  a  little  velvety  or  tomentose,  buff  to  nearly  orange  in  color,  covered  with 
numerous  rather  inconspicuous  longitudinally-elongated  lenticels;  pith  angular. 

BUDS — Similar  to  thos.e  of  the  shell-bark  (Carya  ovata)  except  that  they  are  a  little  larger  and 
have  less  keeled  and  more  hairy  outer  scales. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  compound,  with  7-9  leaflets,  10-22  inches  long.  Leaflets  differ  in  size;  basal 
pair  smallest,  about  i  size  of  the  terminal;  the  upper  pair  broadest  between  the  middle  and  the 
apex.  Leaflets  sharp-pointed  at  apex,  serrate  on  margin,  tapering  or  rounded  at  base,  thick,  firm, 
dark  green  and  smooth  above,  pale  green  to  brownish  and  hairy  below.  Leaf-stalks  grooved,  stout, 
smooth  or  hairy,  thickened  at  base,  often  persist  for  a  long  time. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  large,  conspicuous,  somewhat  raised,  heart-shaped 
or  3-lobed  or  inversely  triangular  or  sometimes  elliptical,  containing  numerous  conspicuous  bundle- 
scars  which  are  distributed  irregularly,  grouped  in  3  clusters  or  arranged  in  a  curved  line. 

FLOWERS— Similar  to  those  of  Shell-bark  Hickory   (Carya  ovata).     See  page  106. 

FRUIT— Ovoid  or  broadly-oblong,  4-ribbed  above  the  middle,  covered  with  very  thick  husk 
which  splits  readily  to  the  base.  Nut  dull  white  or  yellowish,  thick-walled,  usually  strongly 
pointed  at  both  ends,  containing  a  sweet,  light  brown  and  deeply  lobed  kernel. 

WOOD — Similar  to  that  of  the  Shell-bark  (Carya  ovata),  see  page  106.  Lumbermen  do  not  and 
manufacturers  cannot  distinguish  between  the  wood  of  the  two  species. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Big  Shell-bark  Hickory,  also  known  as  Shag-bark 
Hickory  and  King  Nut,  is  most  closely  related  to  the  Shell-bark  Hickory  (Carya  ovata).  It  can 
best  be  distinguished  by  its  dull  white  or  yellowish  nuts  which  are  usually  strongly  pointed  at  both 
ends,  while  those  of  the  latter  are  white  and  barely  tipped  with  a  point  and  often  rounded  or 
notched  at  the  base.  The  leaflets  of  this  species  number  7-9  to  a  leaf  and  are  more  downy  on  the 
lower  surface  than  in  Carya  ovata  which  has  only  5-7  leaflets  to  each  leaf.  For  distinguishing  char- 
acteristics between  this  species  and  other  Hickories  see  "Distinguishing  Characteristics"  under 
Carya  ovata,  page  106. 

RANGE — Central  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  west  to  Iowa  and  Nebraska  and  south  to  Ten- 
nessee and  Arkansas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Common  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  State.  Most 
common  east  of  the  Allegheny  mountains.  Rare  in  the  mountainous  region  except  locally  In  the 
fertile  valley  between  the  mountains.  Locally  present  in  the  western  part.  Probably  most  com- 
mon in  Northampton,  Bucks  and  Montgomery  counties. 

HABITAT — Prefers  wet,  rich  soil.  Often  found  on  situations  which  are  temporarily  flooded  in 
spring.  Frequent  in  rich  bottomlands  and  on  fertile  hillsides. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  is  a  very  important  species  on  account  of  the  valuable 
wood  and  nuts  which  it  produces.  It  is  not  very  common  in  the  State  as  a  whole,  but  where  it 
does  occur  it  should  be  protected  and  regenerated  as  much  as  possible.  Seeds  should  be  planted 
rather  than  seedlings  because  the  latter  are  sensitive  to  transplanting  on  account  of  their  long 
taproot. 


108 


MOCKER  NUT  HICKORY. 
Carya  alba,  (Linnaeus)  K.  Koch. 


FORM— A  large  tree  usually  50-75  ft.  high  with  a  diameter  of  about  2  ft.  but  may  reach  a  height 
of  90  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  ft.  Crown  narrow  oblong  to  broad  round-topped.  Trunk  often 
swollen  at  base,  in  dense  stands  straight,  clean,  with  little  taper  and  free  from  branches  for  one- 
half  of  its  height. 

BARK — Dark  or  light  gray,  5-1  of  an  inch  thick,  close,  not  shaggy  nor  smooth,  roughened  by 
Irregular  furrows  which  separate  broad,  flat,  close,  more  or  less  scaly  and  rounded  ridges.  See 
Fig.  90. 

TWIGS — Compared  with  the  other  Hickories  very  stout,  usually  decidedly  downy,  reddish-brown, 
covered  with  numerous  pale  and  longitudinally-elongated  lenticels;  pith  angular. 

BUDS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked.  Terminal  bud  very  large,  ovate,  2/5-4/5  of  an  inch 
long,  densely  hairy,  usually  blunt-pointed,  covered  with  overlapping  scales,  the  outer  pair  of 
which  drops  oft"  in  autumn  and  exposes  the  inner  yellowish-gray  silky  scales.  Lateral  buds  reddish- 
brown  and  do  not  split  open  very  early. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  compound  with  7-9  leaflets,  8-12  inches  long.  Leaflets  lanceolate-obovate, 
sharp-pointed  at  apex,  toothed  on  margin,  rounded  or  tapering  at  base,  very  fragrant,  often 
downy  on  lower  surface.  Leaf-stalks  hairy,  flattened,  grooved,  and  enlarged  at  base.  Upper  pair 
of  leaflets  largest  with  greatest  width  between  the  middle  and  the  apex;  lower  pair  often  oblong- 
lanceolate. 

LEAF-SCARS— Similar  to  those  of  Shell-bark  Hickory   (Carya  ovata). 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  the  leaves  are  half  developed.  Staminate  and  pistillate 
flowers  separate.  Staminate  borne  in  slender  catkins  4-5  inches  long,  which  are  clustered  in  3s 
en  a  common  stalk.  Pistillate  borne  in  2-5-flowered  pale  hairy  spikes. 

FRUIT — Globular  or  ovoid,  15-2J  inches  long,  with  a  very  thick  or  hard  husk  which  splits  to 
the  middle  or  base.  Nut  globular,  brownish,  not  evidently-flattened  but  4-ridged  towards  apex, 
with  a  very  thick  shell  and  comparatively  small  and  sweet  kernel. 

WOOD — Similar  to  that  of  the  Shell-bark  Hickory  (Carya  ovata).  See  description  page  106. 
Has  a  somewhat  wider  sapwood  which  is  very  white  in  color  whence  its  specific  name — alba. 
Heartwood  dark  brown. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Mocker  Nut  Hickory,  also  known  as  the  Bull  Nut 
Hickory,  the  Big  Bud  Hickory  and  the  White-heart  Hickory,  can  be  distinguished  from  the  two 
species  of  Shell-bark  Hickory  by  its  bark,  which  is  rough  and  close  and  does  not  shag  off,  its 
stouter  twigs,  its  scurfy  pubescent  foliage  and  its  globular  fruit  which  contains  a  globular  brownish 
thick-shelled  nut  with  a  relatively  small  kernel.  The  buds  are  somewhat  larger  than  those  of  the 
Shell-bark  Hickories  and  thicker  than  the  Pignut  and  Bitter  Nut.  The  kernel  of  the  latter  two 
species  is  bitter  and  their  leaflets  are  narrower  and  smoother. 

RANGE — Massachusetts  and  Ontario,   west  to  Nebraska,    and  south  to   Florida  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  most  commonly  in  the  rich  valleys  in  the  east- 
ern and  southern  parts  of  the  State  with  local  outposts  in  the  central  part.  Also  found  in  the 
hardwood  forest  region  in  the  western  part. 

HABITAT— Prefers  rich,  moist  woods.  Requires  considerable  moisture  and  sunlight.  Does  not 
thrive  in  shaded  situations.  Found  mainly  in  valleys  and  in  fertile  situations  at  the  bottom  of 
slopes. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— This  species  produces  as  valuable  a  wood  as  any  of  the 
Hickories.  Some  think  that  the  wood  is  better  than  that  produced  by  our  other  native  Hickories 
because  of  the  large  amount  of  white  sapwood.  It  is  difficult  to  transplant  on  account  of  its 
long  taproot,  hence  it  is  advisable  to  plant  the  seeds  rather  than  seedlings.  Every  effort  which 
one  puts  forth  in  developing  and  perpetuating  this  species  in  our  forests,  especially  in  the 
farmer's  woodlot,  is  Justified.  The  fruit  is  large  but  the  kernel  Is  small  and  as  a  consequence  it 
has  no  special  market  value. 


PLATE  XL.     MOCKER  NUT  HICKORY. 


1.  Branch    with    immature    leaves    and    flowers, 

2.  Branch   with  a  mature  leaf   and  fruit,    x   J. 

3.  A  nut  with   husk   removed,    x  J. 

4.  Longitudinal  section  of  a  nut,    x  J. 

5.  A   winter   branchlet,    x    J. 

6.  A  winter  branchlet,    slightly   enlarged. 

7.  Section  of  winter  branch,    enlarged. 

8.  Section    of    winter    branch,    enlarged. 


x    5. 


PLATE  XLI.     PIGNUT  HICKORY. 

1.  Branch  with   immature  leaves   and   flowers,    x   |. 

2.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  and  fruit  with  husk  partly  removed,  x 

3.  A  nut  with  husk  removed,   x  |. 

4.  Cross-section  of  a  nut,    x  I. 

5.  A  winter  brancn,   x  J. 

6.  Terminal   section  of   a   winter   branch,    enlarged. 

7.  A   leaf-scar   with   bundle-scars,    enlarged. 


109 


PIGNUT  HICKORY. 

Carya  glabra,   (Miller)   Spach. 

FORM — A  fair-sized  tree  usually  50-60  ft.  in  height  with  a  diameter  of  2-3  ft.,  but  may  reach 
a  height  of  90  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3-4  ft.  Trunk  slender,  slightly-tapering,  often  clean  and  long. 
Crown  oblong  in  shape,  rather  narrow,  sometimes  high,  formed  by  short,  spreading  branches, 
the  lower  ones  often  drooping. 

BARK — Rarely  peels  off  or  exfoliates,  is  close,  dark  gray,  shallowly -fissured,  narrowly  ridged, 
tough,  J-l  of  an  inch  thick.  Resembles  the  bark  of  the  White  Ash.  See  Fig.  89, 

TWIGS — Rather  slender,  usually  smooth,  at  first  yellowish-green,  later  reddish-brown,  covered 
with  numerous  pale  longitudinally-elongated  lenticels,  roughened  by  leaf-scars  and  bud-scale  scars; 
pith  angular. 

BUDS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  reddish-brown  to  gray,  oval,  blunt-pointed.  Terminal 
bud  J-J  of  an  inch  long,  larger  than  the  laterals.  All  buds  covered  with  reddish-brown,  smooth, 
sharp-pointed,  somewhat  keeled  outer  scales  and  pale-silky  inner  scales.  Outer  scales  often 
drop  off  during  winter. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  compound,  with  5-7  leaflets,  8-12  inches  long.  Leaflets  oblong  to  obovate- 
lanceolate,  sharp-pointed  at  apex,  finely  toothed  on  margin,  tapering  or  obliquely  rounded  at 
base,  thick,  smooth,  dark  green  above,  paler  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  heart-shaped  or  oblong  or  inversely  triangular  or  3-lobed,  contain- 
ing numerous  prominent  bundle-scars  irregularly  scattered  or  arranged  in  a  curved  line  or  In  3 
clusters. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  about  half  developed.  Staminate  and  pistillate 
flowers  occur  separately.  Staminate  in  aments  about  3-5  inches  long  and  clustered  in  3s  on  a 
common  stalk.  Pistillate  in  2-5-flowered  spikes  on  the  new  growth. 

FRUIT — Matures  about  October,  variable  in  shape  and  size,  pear-shaped  or  spherical  to  obovoid, 
1-2  inches  long,  tapering  at  the  base,  reddish-brown,  sometimes  pubescent.  Husk  may  remain 
closed  or  split  open  from  apex  towards  the  middle  or  occasionally  along  the  entire  length.  Nut; 
oblong  to  oval,  with  thick  bony  shell  containing  a  kernel  which  is  at  first  sweet,  later  bitter. 

WOOD— Similar  to  that  of  the  other  Hickories  of  the  State,  except  the  Bitter  Nut  Hickory. 
See  description  of  wood  page  106. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Pignut  or  Broom  Hickory,  also  known  as  the 
Bitter  Nut  Hickory,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  smooth  and  rather  slender  twigs  which  bear 
small  oval  reddish-brown  buds  covered  with  scales,  the  outer  hair  of  which  is  smooth  or  glandular' 
dotted  and  often  falls  off  before  spring,  thus  exposing  the  inner  velvety  scales.  Its  buds  are  not 
yellow  like  those  of  the  Bitter  Nut  Hicku.-y  and  smaller  than  those  of  the  other  species  of  our 
native  Hickories.  The  pear-shaped  to  ovoid  fruit,  with  a  thick  bony-shelled  nut  is  characteristic.' 
The  bark  13  close  and  does  not  exfoliate  like  that  of  the  Shag-bark  Hickory.  The  leaves,  with 
5-7  usually  smooth  and  oblong  to  obovate-lanceolate  leaflets,  are  distinctive. 

RANGE — Maine  and  Ontario  west  to  Minnesota  and  Nebraska,  and  south  to  Florida  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Common  in  the  southeastern  and  southwestern  parts. 
Also  fcund  locally  elsewhere.  More  common  in  the  mountainous  portion  of  the  State  than  any 
other  Hickory. 

HABITAT — Most  common  on  dry  ridges  and  hillsides.  Rarer  in  swampy  situations.  Commonly 
scattered  amidst  our  Oaks  and  Chestnut.  Prefers  plenty  of  sunlight. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Pignut  Hickory  produces  a  very  valuable  wood,  espe- 
cially for  the  farmer.  The  fruit  is  not  edible.  It  should  be  grown  in  the  farmer's  woodlot  and 
in  our  larger  forests  in  mixture  with  other  species.  The  seedlings  are  difficult  to  transplant 
on  account  of  their  long  taproots,  which  are  rather  sensitive.  In  attempting  to  grow  this  species, 
one  should  plant  the  nuts  and  not  the  seedlings.  The  great  value  of  its  wood  justifies  every  effort 
that  one  can  put  forth  in  growing  it. 


110 


BITTER  NUT  HICKORY. 
Carya   cordiformis,    (Wangenheim)    K.   Koch. 

FORM — A  rather  large  tree  usually  50-75  ft.  high  with  a  diameter  of  1-2  ft.  but  may  reach 
a  height  of  100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  25-3  feet.  Trunk  long,  clean,  with  little  taper.  Crown 
round-topped,  broadest  near  top,  rather  shallow  in  forest  grown  specimens.  Lateral  branches 
stout  and  ascending,  often  with  semi-pendulous  branchlets. 

BARK — Light  gray,  rather  thin,  roughened  by  shallow  fissures  and  narrow  ridges;  tight- 
fitting  and  does  not  peel  off  or  shag  off  1n  loos?  scales  like  the  Shag-bark  Hickory.  See  Fig.  01. 

TWIGS— Slender,  smooth,  glossy,  often  yellow-glandular  and  hairy  towards  apex,  grayish 
or  orange-brown  or  reddish,  roughened  with  numerous  pale  and  longitudinally-elongated  lenticels: 
pith  brown,  angular. 

BUDS — Alternate,  covered  by  4  yellowish,  glandular-dotted  scales  occurring  in  valvate  pairs. 
Terminal  bud  evidently-elongated,  flattened,  blunt-pointed.  Lateral  buds  usually  superposed; 
the  lowest  or  axillary  one  usually  small  and  sharp-pointed;  the  upper  one  larger,  evidently- 
stalked  and  angular. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  compound,  with  7-11  leaflets,  6-10  inches  long.  Leaflets  lanceolate  to 
ovate-lanceolate,  lateral  ones  sessile,  sharp-pointed  at  apex,  finely  toothed  on  margin,  obliquely 
tapering  or  heart-shaped  at  base;  when  mature  dark  yellowish-green  above,  paler  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  large,  conspicuous,  raised,  heart-shaped,  triangular  to  elliptical, 
lighter  than  twigs,  containing  numerous  bundle-scars  arranged  in  3  groups  or  in  a  single 
curved  line  or  occasionally  scattered  irregularly  over  whole  scar. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  half-developed.  Staminate  and  pistillate 
flowers  separate.  Staminate  green  and  arranged  in  triple-clustered  aments  about  3-4  inches 
long.  Pistillate,  and  small  clusters  on  the  new  growth  about  2  of  an  inch  long,  somewhat  angled 
and  scurfy-hairy. 

FRUIT — Matures  about  October;  spherical  to  obovate  about  f-li  inches  long.  Husk  thin, 
yellowish  glandular-dotted,  splits  open  to  about  the  middle  into  four  valves;  before  splitting 
appears  4-winged  from  apex  to  about  the  middle.  Nut  thin-shelled,  at  least  as  broad  as  long, 
smooth,  short-pointed,  with  reddish-brown  and  very  bitter  kernel. 

WOOD — Wood  of  this  species  resembles  the  wood  of  the  other  Hickories,  described  on  page  106, 
only  it  is  somewhat  lighter,  not  quite  so  strong,  of  somewhat  less  fuel  value,  more  brittle,  less 
stiff,  and  yields  more  ash  when  burned. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Bitter  Nut  Hickory,  also  known  as  Tight  Bark 
Hickory,  Swamp  Hickory  and  Bitter  Hickory,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  lanceolate  leaflets  which 
are  pubescent  beneath,  and  smaller  than  those  of  any  other  native  Hickory.  It  is  the  only  native 
species  which  has  yellow  buds  with  4-6  bud-scales  arranged  in  valvate  pairs.  Its  terminal  buds 
are  flattened  and  elongated  while  the  lateral  buds  are  evidently-stalked  and  superposed.  The 
nut  is  globular,  short-pointed,  thin-walled,  containing  a  bitter  kernel,  and  is  covered  by  a  thin 
husk  which  in  time  splits  open  from  the  apex  to  about  the  middle.  The  bark  is  rough,  but 
does  not  scale  off,  which  characteristic  it  has  in  common  with  the  Pignut  and  the  Mocker 
Nut. 

RANGE — Quebec  to  Minnesota  and  Nebraska  and  south  to  Florida  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Local  throughout  the  eastern  and  southern  parts.  Com- 
mon in  the  southwestern  part.  Also  reported  from  the  central  and  northern  parts.  Usually  solitary 
and  scattered. 

HABITAT — Prefers  low,  wet,  and  fertile  situations  such  as  border  of  streams  and  farmers' 
woodlots  located  in  rich  agricultural  regions.  Often  found,  however,  far  up  the  slopes  of  moun- 
tains. It  ascends  to  the  top  of  the  South  Mountains  in  Pennsylvania.  Not  very  tolerant  of 
shade. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  produces  valuable  wood  but  its  fruit  Is  not 
edible.  It  grows  best  on  rich  moist  ooil  such  as  one  usually  finds  in  a  farmer's  woodlot. 
It  endures  transplanting  better  and  grows  more  rapidly  than  any  other  of  our  Hickories.  This 
valuable  wood  is  becoming  rare.  A  future  supply  should  be  insured  by  developing  this  tree 
in  mixture  with  others  in  the  farmer's  woodlot  and  in  fertile  portions  of  larger  forests.  It 
is  not  gregarious  but  prefers  to  grow  as  a  single  specimen  in  mixture  with  other  species. 


PLATE  XLII.     BITTER  NUT  HICKORY. 

1.  Branch  with  immature  leaves  and  flowers,    x   *.  "     ^ 

2.  Branch  with  a  mature  leaf  and  fruit,   x  |.  \^ 

3.  A   fruit   with  husk   partly   opened,    x   *. 

4.  A  nut  with   husk  removed,   x  J.  ,     "•      ., 

5.  Longitudinal   section  of  nut,    x   i.  •      •  •*  "*•, 

6.  A  winter  branch,   x   i.  jS'  -.  »  , 
7    Section  of  winter   branch   showing   superposed   buds,  slightly    enlarged. 

S.  Section  of  winter  branch  showing  superposed  buds  and  leaf-scar,  slightly  enlarged. 
9.  A   leaf -scar  with   bundle-scars,    enlarged. 


Ill 


THE  BIRCH  FAMILY— BETULACEAE. 

The  Birch  family  comprises  6  genera  with  about  75  species  of 
trees  and  shrubs  which  are  confined  to  the  colder  part  of  the  northern 
hemisphere.  Of  this  number  5  genera  with  about  30  species  are 
native  to  North  America  and  5  genera  with  11  species  to  Pennsylva- 
nia. 

All  the  members  of  this  family,  even  though  they  may  belong  to 
different  genera,  have  many  morphological  features  in  common.  The 
leaves  are  simple,  alternate,  borne  singly  or  in  pairs  on  the  branches 
but  never  opposite  each  other.  The  staminate  and  pistillate  flow- 
ers are  separate,  but  are  borne  on  different  parts  of  the  same  tree 
and  usually  on  different  parts  of  the  same  branch.  The  staminate 
flowers  are  long,  usually  in  drooping  aments,  or  in  spike-like  or  knob- 
like  aments  and  may  be  with  or  without  a  perianth.  The  fruits 
are  small,  one- celled,  usually  subtended  by  a  large  bract  which  in 
the  most  important  genera  develops  into  a  cone-like  structure  called 
a  strobile. 

Various  products  of  high  commercial  importance  are  produced  by 
this  family.  The  wood  of  the  Birches  is  used  extensively  for  furni- 
ture, flooring,  interior  finishing  and  has  a  very  high  fuel  value.  The 
fruit  of  the  Hazelnuts  is  prized  as  food.  The  wood  of  some  of  the 
Alders  is  especially  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  and 
charcoal.  The  bark  of  the  Black  Birch  yields  a  volatile  oil  of  consid- 
erable importance.  The  technical  value  of  the  products  from  the 
members  of  this  family  are  becoming  more  important  every  year. 
The  wood  of  some  of  the  species  which  was  despised  formerly,  is  now 
considered  of  high  value  in  some  particular  industries,  on  account  of 
the  new  uses  to  which  it  is  being  put.  The  science  of  Xylology, 
which  is  merely  in  its  formative  period,  will  do  much  in  advancing 
the  position  of  the  wood  of  species  at  present  despised  or  at  least  not 
fully  known.  The  subjoined  key  will  aid  in  distinguishing  the  genera 
of  this  family. 

KEY  TO  THE  GENERA. 

Page. 

1.  Staminate  flowers  solitary  on  each  bract;  pistillate  flowers  with  a  perianth;  fruit 
not  a.  strobile 2 

1.  Staminate  flowers  2   to  several  on   each   bract;   pistillate  flowers  without  a  perianth; 

fruit    i\    strobile 4 

2.  Shrubs:    twigs   covered  with   stiff   red   hairs   standing  out  at   right   angles;    nuts   large 

covered    by   leaf-like    Involucre Corylus        122 

2.  Trees:    Twigs  not  covered  with  stiff  red  hairs;   nuts  small  and  subtended  by  a  large 

bract 3 

3.  Bark    close,     smooth    and    fluted;    nut    subtended    by    a    flat    3-lobed    bract,     terminal 

lobe    serrate    on    one    side,     Carpinus         120 

3.  Bark    thin    covered    by    loose    ribbon-like    narrow    brown    scales;    nut    subtended    by    a 

closed   bract  arranged   In   hop-like  clusters Ostrya         119 

4.  Shrub  with  close,   somewhat  fluted  bark;  wood  yellowish  upon  exposure;  buds  stalked, 

obtuse    at    apex,     covered    with    two    exposed    valv«te    scales;     fruit    woody     and 

persistent Ainu*        121 

4.  Small  to  large  trees  with  loose  bark  usually  peeling  off  into  thin  film-like  layers; 
buds  not  stalked,  acute  at  apex,  covered  with  3  or  more  overlapping  scales;  fruit 
membranous  and  deciduous,  Betula  112 


112 


THE  BIRCHES— BETULA,   Tournefort   (L.) 

This  genus  comprises  about  35  known  species  of  which  number 
25  are  trees  and  the  others  shrubs..  Of  the  known  species  about  15 
are  native  to  North  America  and  5  to  Pennsylvania. 

The  members  of  this  genus  are  without  exception  called  Birches. 
In  most  of  them  the  bark  of  the  trees  when  young  is '  smooth  and 
peels  off  into  film-like  papery  layers  which  vary  in  color  according 
to  the  species  from  chalky  white  to  reddish-brown.  A  few  species 
have,  however,  a  close  and  smooth  bark  which  does  not  peel  off  into 
thin  film-like  papery  layers.  The  wood  is  dense  and  hard,  does  not 
show  the  annual  rings  very  clearly,  is  of  high  fuel  value  and  usually 
reddish-brown  in  color,  sometimes  possessing  a  highly  prized  curly 
or  wavy  figure.  The  twigs  of  the  season  produce  only  one  leaf  at  a 
point,  while  the  twigs  of  the  previous  season  produce  two  leaves  from 
the  lateral  buds  situate  on  the  short  spur-like  branches.  The  leaves 
are  simple,  always  alternate,  occur  singly  or  in  pairs  but  never  op- 
posite. The  flowers  appear  before  or  with  the  developing  leaves.  The 
staminate  flowers  appear  clustered  in  long  tassel-like  bodies  hanging 
down  from  the  end  of  the  twigs  and  are  known  as  aments.  The  pis- 
tillate flowers  appear  below  the  staminate  and  are  nearly  erect, 
rather  small  and  slender.  The  fruit  is  a  cone-like  structure  known 
as  a  strobile  consisting  of  a  central  axis  to  which  numerous  scales 
are  attached.  The  scales  are  thin,  3-lobed,  and  bear  the  small  flat 
nuts  with  their  wings.  The  nuts  are  very  light  and  easily  scattered 
by  the  wind  for  considerable  distances  from  the  mother  or  seed  trees. 

The  commercial  products  derived  from  some  of  the  members  of  this 
genus  are  rather  important  and  valuable.  The  species  found  in  the 
eastern  part  of  North  America  yield  products  of  more  value  than 
those  found  in  the  western  part.  Most  of  the  species  found  in  the 
western  part  of  North  America  are  too  small,  or  infrequent  in  the 
form  of  stands,  to  be  commercially  important  for  general  or  even 
domestic  use.  Some  of  the  species  found  in  the  eastern  part  of  North 
America  are  also  small  shrubs  but  others  reach  the  size  of  large  tim- 
ber trees  which  yield  not  only  excellent  wood  but  also  valuable  oils, 
flavors,  and  bark. 

The  subjoined  key  will  aid  in  distinguishing  the  species  of  Birch 
found  in  Pennsylvania.  Separate  summer  and  winter  keys  were  not 
developed  since  the  following  key  is  based  primarily  upon  bark  char- 
acteristics which  are  present  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 


113 


KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES. 

Page. 
1.    Bark  usually  separating  Into  thin  film-like  papery  layers 2 

1.  Bark  close,   not  separating  into  thin  film-like  papery  layers,   4 

2.  Outer  bark  white  in  color,   B.  alba  var.  papyriffcra        114 

2.  Outer   bark    not   white   in    color. 3 

3.  Outer    bark    yellow    in    color;    strobiles    usually    sessile;    leaves    usually    rounded    at 

base , ; ; B.   lutea        115 

3,  Outer    bark    reddish-brown,     close,     inner    bark    tinged    with    red;     strobiles    slender- 

stalked;  leaves  usually  wedge-shaped  at  base B.  nigra        116 

4.  Bark    chalky    white    covered    with    black    triangular    spots    below    insertion    of    lateral 

branches;    small   tree,    often   in   clumps;    leaves   long-acuminate,    B.    populifolia        117 

4.    Bark  dark   reddish-brcwn;    large   tree,    usually   occurs   singly;    leaves  ovate  with   acute 

apex;    twigs    and    inner    bark    with    wintergreen-like    taste, i..... — B,    lenta         1H 


8 


114 


PAPER  BIRCH. 

Betula  alba  var.  papyrifera,  (Marshall)  Spach. 

FORM— A  large  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  50-75  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  1-2  ft.,  but 
may  roach  a  height  of  80  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  feet.  Trunk  in  open  grown  trees  short  and 
covered  nearly  to  the  base  with  lateral,  often  ascending  branches;  in  close  stands  branchless 
below  and  bearing  a  narrow  open  head. 

BARK — On  trunk  and  older  branches  chalky  to  creamy  white  and  peeling  off  in  thin  film- 
like  layers  which  are  tinged  with  yellow  and  covered  with  horizontally-elongated  lenticels. 
On  older  trunks  rough  and  often  fissured  into  irregular  thick  scales. 

TWIGS — Rather  stout,  somewhat  viscid,  decidedly  hairy,  at  first  greenish,  later  becoming 
smooth,  reddish-brown,  and"  after  several  years,  bright  white,  like  the  trunk,  covered  with 
pale,  horizontally-elongated,  orange-colored  lenticels. 

BUDS — Alternate,  ovate,  sharp-pointed,  divergent,  about  1  of  an  inch  long,  dark  chestnut- 
brown  in  color,  covered  by  a  few  overlapping  bud-scales  with  downy  margins. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  ovate,  2-3  inches  long,  15-2  inches  wide,  rather  firm  in  texture; 
upper  surface  dark  green,  under  surface  light  green;  narrowed  or  rounded  at  the  base, 
sharply  toothed  on  the  margin  and  sharp-pointed  at  the  apex. 

LEAF-SCARS— See  "Leaf -Scars"  under  Black  Birch,   page  118. 

FLOV7ERS — Appear  in  April  or  May  before  the  leaves.  The  staminate  are  arranged  in 
aments,  which  occur  in  groups  of  2-3  and  are  about  J  to  1$  inches  long,  becoming  3J-4 
inches  long  in  spring.  The  pistillate  have  light  green  lanceolate  scales  and  bright  red 
styles,  and  are  arranged  in  clusters  about  1-11  inches  long. 

FRUIT — A  cylindrical,  short-stalked  strobile  about  13  inches  long.  Scales  long,  with 
thick  lateral  lobes  and  a  rather  long  terminal  lobe.  Seeds  small  and  winged.  Wings  wider 
than  the  nut. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  small  and  inconspicuous;  light,  strong,  hard,  light  brown  tinged 
with  red,  with  rather  thick,  light  sapwood.  Weighs  37.11  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  exten- 
sively for  spools,  shoe  lasts,  pegs,  fuel,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  paper^pulp. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Paper  Birch,  also  known  as  Canoe  Birch  and 
White  Birch,  may  readily  be  distinguished  from  all  the  other  species  of  Birch  in  Pennsyl- 
vania except  the  Gray  Birch,  by  its  characteristic  white  bark,  which  is  never  renewed  when 
once  removed.  The  European  White  Birch,  which  is  introduced  extensively  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses, also  has  a  white  bark.  To  distinguish  it  from  the  Gray  Birch  see  "Distinguishing 
Characteristics"  under  Gray  Birch. 

RANGE — From  Newfoundland  to  Alaska,  south  to  Penrsyivania,  Michigan,  Colorado,  and 
Washington.  This  is  one  of  the  few  transcontinental  species. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  only  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State.  Com- 
mon but  scattered  in  Tioga  and  adjoining  ccunties. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  on  rich  wooded  slopes  and  on  the  borders  of  lakes,  swamps,  and 
streams;  also  scattered  through  the  forests  of  other  hardwoods  and  occasionally  through 
coniferous  forests. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— This  species  is  commercially  of  little  importance  in 
Pennsylvania  on  account  of  its  limited  distribution.  It  is  not  of  sufficient  importance  to 
justify  its  artificial  propagation,  but  wherever  it  occurs  naturally  it  should  be  protected 
so  as  to  insure  an  abundant  future  growth.  The  wood  is  sufficiently  prized  to  justify  its 
conservative  utilization,  and  also  its  protection,  where  nature  produces  it  gratuitously. 


PLATE  XLIII.     PAPER  BIRCH. 

1.  Flowering    branch    with    immature   leaves,     (s)    staminate    flowers,     (p)    pistillate    flowers,    x    J. 

2.  Branch   with    mature    leaves,    fruiting   strobiles,    and    partly    developed   staminate   aments,    x   i. 

3.  A  winged  seed,   enlarged. 

4.  A  strobile  scale,    enlarged. 

6.  A  winter  branch  with  3  partly  developed  terminal   staminate  aments,    x  \. 

6.  Section   of   a   lateral   winter   spur-branch,    enlarged. 

7.  Section  of  a  terminal  winter  branch,   enlarged. 


PLATE  XLIV.     YELLOW  BIRCH. 

1.  Flowering    branch    with    (s)    staminate    flowers,    and    (p)    pistillate    flowers,    x    J. 

2.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  and  four  fruiting  strobiles,   x  J. 

3.  A   winged   seed,    enlarged. 

4.  A  strobile  scale,    enlarged. 

5.  Winter  branch  with  partly  developed  terminal  staminate  ameuts.    x   J. 

6.  Section    of    a    lateral    winter    twig,    enlarged. 

7.  Section  of  a   terminal   winter  twig,    enlarged. 


115 


YELLOW  BIRCH. 
Betula  lutea,  Michaux. 

FORM — A  large  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  00-80  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2-3  ft., 
hut  may  reach  a  maximum  height  of  100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3-4J  feet.  Trunk  in  the 
open  usually  short,  branching  near  the  base;  its  long  slender  branches  forming  a  wide  open 
rather  hemispherical  crown,  in  close  stands  often  rather  free  from  lateral  branches. 

BARK— Close    and    furrowed    or    peeling    off    in    thin    yellow    film-like    papery    scales.      Varies 
with   the  age   and   location   of   the    tree.     On   young    trunks   and   branches   rather   close,    shining,       ' 
yellow   but  soon  forming   a   ragged   fringe,   later  peeling   off  into   thin,    yellow,    film-like,    papery 
layers.     On  old  trunks  it  finally  becomes  reddish-brown  and  roughened  with  fissures.     The  ragged 
bark  is  often  pulled  off  and  used  by  campers  to  start  fires  in  wet  weather.    See  Fig.  68. 

TWIGS — At  first  green  and  hairy,  later  brown  and  smooth,  finally  dull  silvery-gray.  Terminal 
twigs  long  and  slender;  lateral  short  nnd  stout;  usually  covered  with  elongated  horizontal 
lenticels  which  in  time  unite  to  form  a  long  horizontal  line. 

BUDS— Similar    to    those    of    the    Black    Birch,    but    sometimes    slightly    more    downy.      See 

page  118. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  occur  singly  or  In  pairs  but  never  opposite,  3-4  inches  long, 
ovate,  wedge-shaped  or  heart-shaped  at  base,  doubly  serrate  on  margin,  acute  at  apex,  dull 
green  above,  yellowish-green  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Similar  to  those  of  the  Black  Birch  in  particular,  and  all  of  the  other 
Birches  in  general. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April  before  the  leaves.  Staminate  and  pistillate  separate,  but 
usually  on  the  same  branch.  Staminate  are  formed  in  the  fall,  remaining  over  winter  as 
aments  about  1  of  an  inch  long  which  elongate  to  about  3  inches  in  spring.  Pistillate  about 
s  of  an  inch  long,  with  acute  scales  which  are  light  red  and  hairy  above,  and  green  below. 

FRUIT — An  erect,  usually  very  short-stalke-I  strobile,  about  1-15  inches  long,  ovate  in  out- 
line, consisting  of  numerous  3-lobed  scales  fastened  to  a  central  axis  and  bearing  small 
winged  nuts  with  rather  narrow  wings. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;    rays    indistinct;    heavy,     hard,     strong,  compact,    not  durable    when 

in   coutnct   with    the   soil.     Heart-wood   light   brown,    tinged   with  red;    sap-wood  pale   in   color. 

Weighs  40.84  pounds  per  cubic  foot.     Used  for  furniture,   flooring,  interior  finish,  boxes,   certain 
veneers     and     fuel. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Yellow  Birch,  also  known  as  Silver  and  Gray 
Birch,  can  readily  be  du-tinguished  from  the  other  Birches  of  Pennsylvania  by  its  yellow  bark 
which  peels  off  into  thin,  film-like,  papery  scales.  Its  method  of  peeling  the  bark  resembles 
that  of  the  Paper  Birch  and  the  Red  Birch,  but  it  does  not  have  the  white  color  of  the 
former  nor  the  reddish  to  greenish-brown  color  of  the  latter.  The  loose,  film-like,  papery  scales 
of  the  Red  Birch  are  smaller  than  those  of  the  Yellow  Birch  and  the  strobiles  of  the  former 
are  slender-stalked  while  those  of  the  latter  are  usually  sessile  or  very  short-stalked. 

RANGE — Newfoundland,  south  to  Pennsylvania,  and  along  the  mountains  to  North  Carolina 
and  Tennessee,  west  to  Minnesota. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  locally  throughout  the  State  but  most  common 
in  the  Alleghenies.  Rare  or  absent  in  the  southeastern  and  southwestern  parts. 

HABITAT — Common  on  moist  rich  uplands,  borders  of  streams,   and  in  swamps. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Yellow  Birch  is  one  of  the  largest  deciduous  trees 
of  northeastern  America.  Until  recently  the  value  of  its  wood  was  not  fully  appreciated, 
but  today  it  holds  a  fair  position  on  the  lumber  market  and  in  the  future  it  will  no  doubt 
attain  a  still  better  position.  It  has  been  classed  as  one  of  the  most  artistic,  reliable,  and 
versatile  of  the  hardwoods  of  this  country.  With  all  its  good  qualities,  it  has  superior 
associates  and  consequently  cannot  be  recommended  for  forestry  purposes  except  on  the 
farmer's  woodlot  where  fuel  is  especially  desired  and  in  such  other  places  where  it  comes 
up  naturally  and  other  more  desired  species  will  not  grow  to  advantage 


116 


RED  BIRCH. 

Betula  nigra,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — A  medium-sii.ed  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  30-50  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  1-2 
ft.,  but  may  reach  a  height  of  100  ft.  witii  a  diameter  of  5  feet.  Trunk  usually  short  and 
divided  near  the  base  into  a  few  slightly  diverging  limbs.  Crown  rather  narrow,  oblong, 
and  irregular. 

BARE — Varies  with  the  age  of  the  tree  and  its  location  on  the  trunk.  On  lower  part  of 
old  trunks  dark  reddish-brown  and  roughened  by  fissures  which  separate  irregular  scales. 
On  younger  trunks  and  upper  portion  of  older  ones  peels  off  into  thin,  film-like,  papery  scales 
which  are  reddish-brown  to  greenish-brown  in  color  and  persist  for  a  few  years  during  which 
time  they  form  a  ragged  fringe  and  expose  the  light  red  and  close  bark  underneath.  See 
Fig.  65. 

TWIGS — Slender,  at  first  hairy  and  greenish,  later  smooth,  reddish-brown,  covered  by  pale 
horizontally-elongated  lenticels. 

BUDS — Alternate,  ovate,  sharp-pointed,  shining,  smooth  or  slightly  hairy,  covered  with1 
usually  3-7  chestnut-brown  overlapping  scales. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  broadly  ovate,  15-3  inches  long,  wedge-shaped  at  base,  acute 
at  apex,  doubly-serrate  on  margin,  deep  green  above,  pale  yellowish-green  below. 

LEAF-SCARS— Similar  to  those  of  the  Black  Birch.     See  page  118. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April  before  the  leaves.  Staminate  and  pistillate  separate,  but 
usually  on  the  same  branch.  Staminate  formed  in  the  fall,  remaining  over  winter  as  aments 
about  1  of  an  inch  long,  usually  in  clusters  of  three,  which  elongate  to  about  2-3  inches  the 
following  spring.  Pistillate  about  $  of  an  inch  long,  developing  in  spring  from  buds  situate 
below  the  starainate  flowers. 

FRUIT — An  erect,  slender-stalked,  pubescent,  cylindrical  strobile,  1-15  inches  long,  consisting 
of  numerous  3-lobed  pubescent  scales  fastened  to  central  axis  and  bearing  small,  hairy,  winged 
nuts.  Terminal  lobe  of  the  scales  is  larger  than  the  laterals. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  indistinct;  light,  soft,  strong,  with  light-brown  heartwood  and 
pale  thin  sapwood.  Weighs  35.91  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  Used  in  the  manufacture  of 
furniture,  slack-cooperage,  fruit  and  vegetable  baskets,  wooden  ware,  and  turnery. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Red  Birch,  also  known  as  the  River  Birch,  can 
be  recognized  by  its  reddish -brown  to  cinnamon-red  bark  which  peels  off  into  film-like  papery 
scales.  The  layers  are  smaller  and  less  ragged  than  those  of  the  Yellow  Birch  which  has 
a  decidedly  yellow  or  silvery -yellow  colored  bark.  The  Black  Birch  has  a  closer  bark  which 
does  not  peel  off  and  the  other  species  of  Pennsylvania  have  a  white  bark.  The  River 
Birch  Is  usually  found  along  streams  or  in  other  wet  locations  which  may  also  aid  in  dis- 
tinguishing It. 

RANGE — Massachusetts  south  to  Florida,   west  to  Minnesota,   Kansas  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  throughout  the  State  along  the  banks  of  the 
principal  rivers  and  their  chief  tributaries,  but  rare  in  the  western  part. 

HABITAT — Prefers  the  banks  of  streams,  lakes,  pools,  and  swamps.  Occasionally  found 
upon  drier  locations.  It  is  called  River  Birch  because  it  is  usually  found  along  the  banks  of 
rivers  or  other  locations  having  similar  moisture  conditions. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Red  Birch  is  of  little  commercial  Importance  in  Pennsyl- 
vania as  a  lumber  species  on  account  of  the  relatively  small  size  which  it  attains,  the  softness 
of  its  wood,  and  the  absence  of  figure  and  attractive  color  in  the  wood  as  well  as  its  limited 
distribution.  It  is  esreiitially  a  southern  species  reaching  its  optimum  development  in  North 
Carolina  and  adjoining  states.  While  it  is  of  little  commercial  importance  it  may  be  of  economic 
importance  in  such  situations  where  moistuie-loving  trees  are  required  to  bind  soil,  as  along 
streams,  or  where  it  is  desirable  to  establish  stands  in  extremely  swampy  locations.  It  is  attract 
Ive  as  an  ornamental  tree. 


PLATE  XLV.     RED  BIRCH. 

1.  Flowering   branch   with    (s)    staminate    flowers,     (p)    pistillate    flowers,    x    J. 

2.  Branch   with   mature   leaves   aud    two   fruiting   strobiles,    x   J. 

3.  A  winged   seed,    enlarged. 

4.  A   strobile   scale,    enlarged. 

5.  A   winter   branch    with    three    partly    developed    terminal    staminate   aments,    x 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  branch,    enlarged. 


PLATE  XLVI.     GRAY  BIRCH. 

1.  Flowering   branch    with    immature    leaves    (s)    staminate    flowers,     (p)    pistillate    flowers,    x    i. 

2.  Branch   with   mature   leaves   and   fruiting   strobiles,    x   J. 

3.  A   winged  seed,    enlarged. 

4.  A  strobile  scale,    enlarged. 

5.  A  winter  branch  with  a  partly   developed   terminal   staminate   ament,    x   J. 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,  enlarged. 


117 


GRAY  BIRCH. 

Betula  populifolia,  Marshall. 

FORM — A  small  tr«e  usually  occurring  in  clumps  and  attaining  a  height  of  20-30  ft.  with 
a  diameter  of  9  inches,  but  may  reach  a  height  of  45  ft.  and  a  diameter  of  18  inches. 
Trunk  slender,  often  inclined,  continuous,  and  covered  with  ascending  lateral  branches  with 
drooping  ends  which  form  a  narrow  pyramidal,  rather  open,  and  pointed  crown. 

BARK — Dull  white,  close,  smooth,  not  peeling  off  into  thin  film-like  layers  but  covered  with 
triangular  black  spots  below  the  insertion  of  the  lateral  branches.  On  old  trunks  black  and 
roughened  with  fissures.  Inner  bark  orange-yellow.  See  Figs.  64  and  69. 

TWIGS — Slender,  greenish  to  brown,  roughened  by  warty  exudations  and  by  raised,  pale, 
and  horizontally-elongated  lenticels;  later  smooth  and  dull  white. 

BUDS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  ovate,  1/5  of  an  inch  long,  sharp -pointed,  divergent,  covered 
with  3-4  visible  smooth,  slightly  resinous,  brown  bud-scales  with  downy  margins. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  triangular,  ovate,  2J-3  inches  long,  lj-2  inches  wide,  wedge- 
shaped  at  base,  decidedly  serrate  on  margin,  with  long-toothed  apex  and  long,  slender 
petioles  which  cause  the  leaves  to  quiver  when  stimulated  by  a  slight  breeze  only. 

LEAF-SCARS— See  "Leaf-Scars"  under  Black  Birch,  page  118. 

FLOWERS— Appear    about    April    before    the    leaves.      Staminate    in    solitary    or  occasionally 

paired   aments   which   are   about   11-15    inches   long   and   1   of   an    Inch   wide   during  the   winter, 

but   develop    in   spring   to   a    length   of   2-4   inches.     Pistillate    cylindrical,    slender,  about    J    of 
an   inch   long   and   stalked. 

FRUIT — A  slender,  cylindrical,  stalked  strobile  about  I  of  an  inch  long  and  obtuse  at  the 
apex.  Scales  small  an3  downy;  their  lateral  lobes  broad  and  recurving,  while  the  terminal 
one  is  rather  straight  and  narrow.  Seeds  small,  oval,*  and  winged.  Wings  broader  than 
the  seed. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  inconspicuous;  light,  soft,  not  strong,  not  durable;  heartwood 
light  brown;  sapwood  light.  Weighs  35.90  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  fuel,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  paper  pulp,  spools,  shoe  pegs,  and  hoops  for  barrels. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Gray  Birch,  also  known  as  Oldfleld,  White, 
Poverty,  or  Poplar  Birch,  can  be  distinguished  from  all  the  other  Birches  of  Pennsylvania, 
except  the  native  Paper  Birch,  and  the  commonly  introduced  European  White  Birch,  by 
its  white  bark  which  Is  never  renewed  when  once  removed.  The  bark  is  close,  dull  white, 
and  marked  with  black  triangular  blotches  just  below  the  insertion  of  the  lateral  branches, 
and  does  not  peel  off  in  thin  paper-like  layers  like  that  of  the  Birch.  The  Gray  Birch  is 
usually  a  small  tree  with  a  rather  continuous  trunk  and  frequently  occurs  in  clumps.  The 
twigs '  of  the  Gray  Birch  are  also  rougher  than  the  Paper  Birch  and  its  leaves  are  long- 
acuminate,  while  those  of  the  Paper  Birch  are  ovate. 

RANGE — Nova  Scotia  south  to  Delaware  and  southern  Pennsylvania,  west  to  the  southern 
shores  of  Lake  Ontario. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Locally  in  the  mountainous  portion.  Common  in 
Monroe,  Schuylkill  and  Pike  counties.  Abundant  along  streams  in  northern  part  of  the  State. 
A  few  specimens  found  on  top  of  South  Mountains  in  Franklin  county  near  Mason  and  Dixon 
line,  and  on  Tussey  mountain  in  Huntingdon  county. 

HABITAT — Usually   occurs   on    moist   soil   along    streams,    ponds,    and    lakes;    also   grows    on 

hillsides    and    occasionally    on    rocky    mountain    tops. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  is  of  little  commercial  value  on  account  of 
the  small  size  which  it  attains  due  to  its  short  life.  The  existing  stands  should,  however,  be 
conservatively  utilized.  It  cannot  be  recommended  for  forest  planting,  but  Is  an  extremely 
attractive  tree  for  ornamental  purposes. 


118 


BLACK  BIRCH. 
Betula  lenta,  Linnaeus. 

FORM— This  tree  usually  attains  a  height  of  50-60  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  1-3  ft.,  but 
may  reach  a  height  of  80  ft.  with  a  diametei  of  5  feet.  Trunk  rather  continuous,  sometimes 
subdivided,  bearing  long,  slender,  lateral  branches  which  are  ascending  on  young  trees  forming 
a  narrow  conical  crown,  or  often  pendulous  on  old  specimens  forming  a  wide  spreading  crown. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  (Fig.  71)  distinctly  black,  broken  into  large,  thick,  irregular  plates 
which  are  smooth  on  the  surface;  on  younger  parts  of  the  trees  (Fig.  70)  smooth,  shining, 
very  close  fitting,  reddish-brown,  with  sweet  wintergreen  taste  and  covered  with  horizontally- 
elongated  lenticels. 

TWIGS — During  the  first  summer  light  green  and  hairy,  later  becoming  reddish-brown, 
smooth,  shining,  with  pronounced  wintergreen-like  flavor.  Terminal  twigs  slender  and  elongated, 
while  lateral  spurs  are  numerous,  stout,  and  short. 

BUDS— Alternate,  about  1  of  an  inch  long,  conical,  sharp-pointed,  shining,  covered  with 
reddish -brown  overlapping  scales  with  downy  margins.  Three  bud-scales  usually  visible  on  buds 
of  terminal  shoot  and  fiom  5-8  on  lateral  spur  shoots. 

LEAVES— Alternate,  simple,  ovate,  usually  heart-shaped  at  base,  serrate  on  magrin,  long- 
pointed  at  apex,  dark  green  above,  pale  green  below,  25-5  Inches  long,  11-3  inches  wide. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  small,  semi-oval  in  outline,  containing  3  rather  small,  equidistant 
bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS— Appear  about  April  before  the  leaves.  Staminate  formed  in  fall,  remaining  over 
winter  as  aments  about  I  of  an  inch  long,  in  clusters  of  usually  three,  which  elongate  to 
about  3  or  4  inches  the  following  spring.  Pistillate  about  i-J  of  an  inch  long,  slender,  and 
pale  green. 

FRUIT — A  strobile  about  1J-2  inches  long,  sessile,  smooth,  erect,  with  smooth  8-lobed 
scales  and  small  winged  nutlets.  Lobes  of  the  scales  are  about  equal  in  length  but  the 
terminal  is  narrower  and  sharper-pointed. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  indistinct;  heavy,  strong,  hard,  dark  brown,  with  thin  yellowish 
sap  wood.  Weighs  47.47  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  furniture,  often  in  imitation  of 
Mahogany,  and  for  interior  finish;  also  substituted  for  Cherry  and  occasionally  for  Hickory. 
Trees  cut  in  spring  at  about  the  time  the  buds  open,  bleed  more  than  any  other  species, 
but  the  sap  contains  less  saccharine  material  than  that  of  the  Maples. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Black  Birch,  also  known  as  Sweet  Birch,  and 
Cherry  Birch,  can  be  distinguished  from  all  the  other  species  of  Birch  in  Pennsylvania  by 
its  close,  blackish,  cherry-like  bark  which  does  not  peel  off  into  film-like  layers.  It  closely 
resembles  the  Yellow  Birch  but  the  latter  has  yellow  bark  which  peels  off  into  thin  film- 
like  layers.  The  twigs  have  a  distinctly  wintergreen-like  flavor  which  is  absent  in  the  other 
species.  The  scales  of  the  fruit  of  the  Black  Birch  are  smooth  about  equally  lobed  while 
those  of  the  Yellow  Birch  are  hairy  and  irregularly  lobed. 

RANGE — Newfoundland   to   Florida,    west   to   Ontario,    Illinois   and   Tennessee. 
DISTRIBUTION    IN    PENNSYLVANIA— Common    throughout    the    State,    and    locally    frequent. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  in  rich  soil  and  on  dry  slopes  but  also  common  on  rocky  mountain 
slopes  and  tops.  Common  on  the  rocky  ridges  of  the  South  Mountains  in  Pennsylvania. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Birches,  next  to  the  Hickories,  furnish  the  best  fuel 
wood  of  all  the  native  species  of  Pennsylvania.  The  wood  of  Black  Birch  ranks  high  as  a 
fuel  wood  and  is  becoming  more  important  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  especially  as  a 
substitute  for  Mahogany  and  Cherry.  This  tree  also  yields  an  oil  sold  as  a  substitute  for 
wintergreen.  While  this  species  has  many  good  'qualities  still  it  is.  a  slow  grower  and  when 
quite  young  is  subject  to  the  attack  of  fungi,  which  materially  decrease  the  technical  value 
of  the  wood.  It  is  not  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  regenerated  artificially  but  should  be 
developed  where  it  appears  naturally.  This  species  occurs  naturally  upon  extremely  rocky 
ridges  and  may  be  a  very  desirable  species  in  establishing  protection  forests  upon  steep  . 
mountain  slopes  and  rocky  mountain  tops. 


PLATE  XLVII.     BLACK  BIRCH. 

1.  Flowering    branch    with     (s)     staminate    flowers,     (p)     pistillate   flowers,    x   J. 

2.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  and  three  fruiting  strobiles,   x  i. 

3.  A  winged  seed,   enlarged. 

4.  A  strobile  scale,    enlarged. 

5.  Winter  branch  with  partly  developed   terminal  staminate  aments,    x   J. 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,   enlarged. 


PLATE  XLVIII.     AMERICAN  HOP  HORNBEAM. 

1.  Flowering   branch    with   immature   leaves,    (s)    staminate   flowers,    (p)    pistillate   flowers,    x 

2.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  and  hop-like  fruit  clusters,  x  J. 

3.  A   seed    with    inclosing    membrane,    slightly    enlarged. 

4.  A  seed  with  part  of  inclosing  membrane  removed,    slightly   enlarged. 

5.  A  winter  branch  with  partly  developed   terminal   staminate   aments,    x   1. 

6.  Section  of  winter  twig,    enlarged. 


119 


AMERICAN  HOP  HORNBEAM. 
Ostrya  virginiana,  (Miller)  K.  Koch. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — This  genus  comprises  about  4  species  which  are  widely  distributed 
in  the  northern  hemisphere.  Two  species  are  native  to  America  and  2  to  the  eastern  hemisphere. 
One  of  the  American  species  is  more  limited  in  its  distribution  than  any  other  known  tree, 
being  found  only  in  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado  River  in  Arizona  while  the  other 
American  species  is  rather  widely  distributed  over  the  eastern  part  of  the  country., 

FORM— Usually  attains  a  height  of  20-30  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  li  ft.,  but  may  reach  a 
height  of  60  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2  feet.  Crown  high,  open,  and  very  broad,  formed  by 
widely  spreading  often  drooping  branches  with  ascending  branchlets. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  thin,  roughened  by  loose  flattish  scales  which  are  loose  at  the  ends. 
See  Fig.  54. 

TWIGS — Slender,  tough,  dark  reddish-brown,  zigzag,  at  first  hairy  and  green,  later  smooth, 
lustrous,  dark  brown. 

BUDS — Alternate,  ax'llary;  terminal  bud  absent;  ovate,  1  of  an  inch  long,  sharp-pointed, 
distinctly  divergent,  slightly  pubescent,  smooth,  gummy,  covered  by  about  8  visible,  longi- 
tudinally-striated, 4-ranked  scales  which  increase  in  size  from  the  base  towards  the  apex. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  ovate-oblong,  acute  at  apex,  doubly-serrate  on  margin,  rounded 
or  heart-shaped  or  wedge-shaped  at  base,  3-5  inches  long;  dull  yellowish-green  above,  paler 
green  below. 

LEAF-SCARS— Alternate,    small,    flattened,    2-ranked,    with   usually   3   small   bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April  with  the  leaves.  Staminate  aments  appear  about  midsummer 
usually  in  about  3s  at  the  end  of  the  twigs  and  persist  during  the  winter;  they  are  stiff, 
hairy,  about  !  of  an  inch  long,  becoming  about  2  inches  long  in  spring  and  covered  with 
reddish-brown  scales.  Pistillate  flowers  appear  in  erect  aments,  each  one  inclosed  in  a  hairy 
bladder-like  bract. 

FRUIT — A  small  Hat  nutlet,  inclosed  in  an  inflated  bladder-like  bract  which  is  covered  at 
the  base  with  long  hairs  irritating  to  the  skin.  Bracts  arranged  in  hop-like,  pendant  clusters 
which  fall  during  winter  and  leave  the  persisting  naked  stalk. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  indistinct;  strong,  hard,  durable,  light  brown  to  white.  Weighs 
about  51  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  fence  posts,  tool  handles,  and  mallets. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  American  Hop  Hornbeam,  also  known  as  Ironwood, 
Leverwood,  and  Deerwood,  can  readily  be  recognized  by  its  thin  grayish-brown  bark  which  peels  off 
into  narrow  flat  scales  often  loose  at  both  ends  and  only  attached  in  the  middle.  The  hop-like 
clusters  of  sac-like  fruit  are  also  peculiar,  which  usually  fall  before  winter  but  the  stalks 
to  which  they  are  attached  often  persist.  la  winter  the  very  slender  interlacing  branches,  the 
staminate  catkins  usually  occurring  in  3s  at  the  end  of  the  twigs,  the  small  2-ranked  leaf- 
scars  with  3  bundle  sea  rt,  and  the  small  reddish-brown  buds  with  4-ranked  scales  are  charac- 
teristic. The  autumnal  color  of  the  leaves  is  yellow  while  that  of  the  closely  related  American 
Hornbeam  is  brilliant  orange  to  deep  scarlet.  The  hardness  of  the  wood  is  also  distinctive. 
The  wood  is  about  30  per  cent,  stronger  than  White  Oak. 

RANGE — Cape  Breton  Islands  to  Florida,  west  to  Minnesota  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  locally  throughout  the  State  but  nowhere 
abundant.  Usually  mixed  with  other  species.  Rarely  conspicuous  In  the  composition  of 
the  forest. 

HABITAT — Prefers  dry  gravelly  slopes  and  ridges,  occasionally  moist  situations.  Usually 
seeks  cool  and  shaded  situations,  and  Is  never  found  in  pure  stands  or  groups,  but  occurs 
singly  in  mixture,  often  as  an  undergrowth  of  Oak,  Maple,  Chestnut,  and  other  forest  species 
common  to  its  range. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  American  Hop  Hornbeam  produces  a  valuable  wood  and 
grows  rapidly,  but  its  solitary  habits  as  well  as  its  silvicultural  characteristics  and  the  relatively 
small  size  which  it  attains,  do  not  recommend  it  for  forestry  purposes.  It  is  well  adapted 
for  planting  in  lawns  and  parks. 


120 


AMERICAN  HORNBEAM. 
Carpinus  caroliniana,  Walter. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — This  genus  comprises  about  12  species  which  are  confined  to  the 
northern  hemisphere.  Only  1  species  is  found  in  America.  A  few  of  the  other  species  ar6 
native  to  Europe,  while  most  are  found  in  northern  and  central  Asia. 

FORM— A  small  tree  or  shrub  usually  attaining  a  height  of  10-30  ft,  with  a  diameter  of  8-12 
fnches,  but  may  reach  a  height  of  40  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2  feet.  Trunk  usually  short, 
fluted,  and  bearing  a  wide-spreading  usually  round-topped  crown  with  tough  ascending  branches 
often  pendulous  towards  the  end. 

BARK — Vertically  corrugated,  smooth,  thin,  close-fitting,  bluish-gray  tinged  with  brown.  See 
Fig.  93. 

TWIGS — Slender,  ut  first  silky,  hairy,  and  green,  later  smooth,  shining,  reddish  to  orange; 
covered  with  scattered  pale  lenticels. 

BUDS— Alternate,  axilliary;  terminal  bud  absent;  ovate,  pointed,  i  of  an  inch  long,  reddish- 
brown,  covered  with  8-12  visible  4-ranked  bud-scales.  Bud-scales  increase  in  size  from  the 
base  towards  the  apex,  are  longitudinally -striate  and  often  ciliate  on  margins. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  ovate-oblong,  acute  at  apex,  doubly-serrate  on  margin,  rounded 
or  wedge-shaped  at  basn,  2-4  inches  long,  deep  green  above,  paler  below. 

LEAF-SCABS— Alternate,  small,  elevated,  elliptical,  with  generally  3  inconspicuous  bundle- 
scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April  with  the  leaves.  Staminate  start  to  develop  In  fall  and 
remain  over  winter  in  the  form  of  buds  which  resemble  the  leaf -buds,  only  are  larger.  When 
fully  developed  they  are  drooping  aments  about  U  inches  long.  Pistillate  appear  as  aments, 
about  |  of  an  inch  long,  with  bright  scarlet  stylps. 

FRUIT— A  small  corrugated  nut  about  $  of  an  inch  long  inclosed  by  a  leaf-like,  3-lobed 
bract  which  is  usually  serrate  only  on  one  margin  of  middle  lobe. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  conspicuous  and  broad  along  short  radii;  heavy,  hard,  strong, 
light  brown  with  broad  sapwood.  Weighs  about  45  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  fuel,  tool 
aandles,  and  levers. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  American  Hornbeam,  also  known  as  the  Blue 
Beech,  Ironwood,  and  Water  Beech,  may  be  distinguished  by  its  vertical,  corrugated,  bluish-gray, 
smooth  bark.  The  leaf-like  3-lobed  bract  with  its  corrugated  nut  is  also  characteristic.  The 
staminate  catkins  remain  in  the  bud  during  the  winter,  while  those  of  the  American  Hop  Horn- 
beam are  developed  in  autumn.  It  resembles  the  American  Beech,  but  can  readily  be  distinguished 
from  it  by  its  corrugated  bark  and  the  absence  of  the  long,  slender,  conical,  and  sharp- 
pointed  buds  so  characteristic  of  the  Beech.  The  buds  are  usually  downy  at  the  apex  while 
those  of  the  American  Hop  Hornbeam  are  smooth  and  slightly  gummy  within.  The  autumnal  color 
of  the  leaves  is  brilliant  orange  to  deep  scarlet. 

RANGE — Nova   Scotia   to   Florida,    west   to   Minnesota   and   Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  locally  throughout  the  State.  Sometimes  rather 
abundant  and  conspicuous  in  wet  habitats.  Common  in  Franklin,  Adams,  Northampton,  Fulton, 
Centre,  Huntingdon,  Tioga,  and  Union  counties. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  in  swamps  and  on  the  border  of  streams,  whence  its  name  Water 
Beech.  In  Pennsylvania  it  Is  found  in  the  valleys,  along  streams,  in  swamps,  and  In  similar 
habitats  on  the  mountain  flats  and  on  moist  fertile  mountain  slopes. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  on  account  of  its  small  size,  slo<w  growth,  and 
preference  for  wet  locations  is  of  little  commercial  importance.  It  cannot  be  recommended  for  for- 
estry purposes  but  is  attractive  as  an  ornamental  tree  on  account  of  its  fluted  bark,  peculiar 
branching,  and  the  beautiful  orange  and  scarlet  autumnal  coloration  of  its  foliage. 


PLATE  XLIX.     AMERICAN   HORNBEAM. 

1.  Flowering   branch   with    immature   leaves,     (s)    staminate    flowers,     (p)    pistillate    flowers, 

2.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  and  fruit,   x  I. 

3.  A  nut  with  subtending  bract,    slightly   enlarged. 

4.  Nut    with    bract    removed,    enlarged. 

5.  A   winter  branchlet,    x   J. 

6.  Section  of  winter  twig,   enlarged. 


PLATE  L.     SMOOTH  ALDER. 


x  (f   staminate  catkins-    M    Palate  catkins,   x  i. 
Mature  pistillate  catkins,  x'  i. 
Branch  with  leaves  and  fruit,  x  *. 
Branch   with    mature   fruit   strobiles,    x   i 
A  strobile  scale  with   seeds,    slightly   enlarged 
A  winged  seed,    enlarged. 

SCeCnliarlge0df  WiDter   branCh  sbowin"   stalked   bud-    lenticels,    leaf-soar   with   bundle-scars,    slightly 

A  leaf-scar,   enlarged. 

Cross  section  of  branch   showing  triangular  pith,    enlarged. 


m 


SMOOTH  ALDER. 
Alnus  rugosa,  (Du  Roi)  Sprengel. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION— The  Alders  comprise  about  25  known  species,  of  which  number 
about  10  species  ar»  native  to  North  America  and  2  species  to  Pennsylvania.  The  members 
of  this  genus  are  distributed  widely  in  the  northern  hemisphere  and  extend  south  through 
Central  America  and  along  the  Andes  mountains  to  Bolivia.  Most  of  them  are  shrubs  or  small 
trees,  while  a  few  attain  a  fair  tree-size. 

FORM — A  small  shrub  usually  from  4-10-  ft.  in  height.  Sometimes  solitary,  usually  in  clumps, 
often  forming  thickets  which  are  almost  impenetrable,  especially  in  wet  locations. 

BARK— Thin,  smooth,  fluted,  astringent,  at  first  brownish -green,  later  grayish-green,  and 
often  •  covered  with  white  blotches. 

TWIGS— Rather  slender,  at  first  greenish,  later  greenish-brown  and  finally  grayish-brown. 
Often  grayish-white  towards  end  of  fruiting  twigs.  Lenticels  numerous,  scattered,  brownish, 
roundish  or  longitudinally-elongated.  Pith  greenish  and  irregular  or  triangular. 

BUDS — Alternate,  evidently-stalked,  about  I  of  an  inch  iong;  greenish-red,  laterally  com- 
pressed, blunt-pointed,  apparently  covered  with  two  valvate  scales  which  in  reality  are 
stipules.  Stipular  bud-ecales  are  often  whitish  towards  apex  and  usually  slightly  sticky. 

LEAVES— Alternate,  simple,  obovate,  blunt-pointed  or  rounded  at  apex,  usually  wedge- 
shaped  at  base,  almost  regularly  serrate  on  margin  at  first  slightly  gummy,  later  smooth) 
rather  thick,  2J-4J  inches  long;  green  on  both  surfaces,  but  darker  on  upper  surface,  brownish 
pubescent  below  especially  in  'the  axils  of  the  veins.  Veins  depressed  above  and  ridged 
below. 

LEAF-SCARS— Alternate,  raised,  usually  2  or  3-ranked,  somewhat  triangular,  containing 
about  3  bundle-scars  which  are  often  compounded.  Stipule  gears  narrow,  triangular,  brownish 
and  very  close  to  leaf -scars, 

FLOWERS— Appear  in  March  or  April  before  the  leaves.  Staminate  and  pistillate  occur 
separately  but  on  same  twig.  Staminate  in  aments  which  develop  partly  in  previous  autumn 
and  remain  dormant  over  winter.  In  winter  they  are .  stiff,  pendant,  greenish,  and  about 
one  inch  long;  in  clusters  of  2:5  at  the  end  of  bare  stalks.  Pistillate  also  develop  in  the 
previous  autumn  and  remain  dormant  over  winter,  are  about  1-5  of  an  inch  long,  usually  clustered 
in  2s  or  3s  and  greenish  to  purplish  in  color.  The  first  warm  days  of  spring  bring  forth 
the  scarlet  styles  of  the  pistillate  flowers. 

FRUIT — A  cone-lik,e  woody  j  structure,  about  J-i  of  an  inch  long,  orbicular,  persistent, 
composed  of  thick  and  woody  scales  on  which  the  little,  practically  wingless,  round  and 
flattened  nutlets  are  pioduced. 

WOOD— Diffuse-porous:  growth  rings  distinct;  rays  variable  in  width.  Sapwood  turns 
yellowish-brown  upon  exposure. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Smooth  Alder,  also  known  as  Black  Alder, 
can  be  distinguished  by  the  woody  cone-like  fruit  which  is  usually  present  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year.  The  wet  habitats  which  it  frequents  may  also  aid  in  recognizing  it.  In  spring  it  iff 
one  of  the  first  of  our  small  trees  to  blossom.  In  summer  the  stiff  leaves  with  their  rounded 
apexes  are  also  characteristic.  In  winter  the  mature  fruit,  developing  staminate  and  pistillate 
flowers,  stalked  buds,  and  triangular  green  pith,  are  distinctive.  The  only  other  Alder 
native  to  Pennsylvania  is  the  Speckled  or  Hoary  Alder  (Alnus  incana  (L.)  Moench.)  This 
species  can  be  distinguished  from  the  Smooth  Alder  by  its  leaf-blades  which  are  usually 
glaucous  or  finely  pubescent  underneath  and  rounded  at  the  base. 

RANGE — Essentially  a  southern  species,  extending  from  Maine  to  Florida  and  Texas  and 
westward  to  Minnesota.  Sparse  and  often  entirely  absent  along  the  streams  flowing  through 
limestone  soil. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Very  common  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts 
of  the  State.  Sparse  and -locally  abundant  in  northern  and  western  parts. 

HABITAT — Common  along  streams  and  in  swamps.  Rarely  ascends  the  hillsides.  In  wet 
situations  it  often  forms  dense  thickets. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  two  species  of  Alder  native  to  Pennsylvania  do  not 
attain  a  size  which  would  make  them  important  commercially.  They  may  be  of  value  as 
soil-binders  and  soil-ccnservers  along  the  banks  of  streams  or  in  very  wet  situations  sinot 
they  develop  large  and  strong  roots  which  throw  off  many  suckers. 


122 


HAZELNUT. 
Corylus  americana,  Walter. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — The  Hazlenuts  comprise  about  7  known  species,  of  which  number 
about  3  species  are  native  to  North  America  and  2  to  Pennsylvania.  The  members  of  this 
genus  are  usually  shrubs,  rarely  trees,  found  in  the  northern  hemisphere.  They  do  not  pro- 
duce wood  of  any  commercial  importance,  but  their  fruit,  which  is  a  nut,  is  very  common  in  our 
markets.  The  nuts  are  sold  under  the  name  Hazelnuts  or  Filberts. 

FORM — A  shrub  or  small  tree  reaching  a  height  of  3-8  feet.  Occurs  in  clumps  and  often 
forms  thickets. 

BARK — Rather  smooth,  thin,  dark  brown,  sometimes  roughened  with  shallow  longitudinal 
fissures. 

TWIGS — Smooth  but  marked  with  a  few  scattered  lenticels,  and  covered  with  numerous 
pinkish  hairs  which  usually  stand  at  right  angles  to  the  twigs;  gray  to  russet-brown  in  color. 

BUDS — Alternate,  ovate  to  globular,  reddish-brown,  somewhat  hairy,  covered  with  about 
3-6  scales  with  hairy  and  slightly  glandular  margins. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  ovate,  obtuse  or  heart-shaped  at  base,  acute  at  apex,  serrate  on 
margin,  smooth  on  uppei  surface  and  slightly  hairy  on  lower  surface. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  semi-circular  to  globular,  raised,  with  scattered  bundle-scars  usually 
5-10  in  number. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  April  or  May  before  the  leaves.  Staminate  occur  in  catkins  which 
usually  appear  before  the  leaves  at  the  end  of  the  twigs  of  the  previous  season's  growth  and 
are  from  3-4  inches  long.  Pistillate  small,  develop  from  short  scaly  buds,  with  long,  slender, 
projecting,  crimson  stigmas. 

FRTTIT — A  pale  brown  ovoid  nut  about  $  of  an  inch  long,  slightly  flattened,  somewhat  roughened 
at  base  where  the  involucre  is  attached.  Involucre  consists  of  two  leafy  bractlets  which  are 
distinct  in  the  Common  Hazelnnt  and  united  into  a  tubular  beak  in  the  Beaked  Hazelnut. 
Ripens  in  July  and  August.  Kernel  sweet  and  edible. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Hazelnut,  also  known  as  American  Hazel 
and  Filbert,  can  be  recognized  by  its  characteristic  fruit,  which  consists  of  a  nut  with  a 
leafy  involucre  of  2  distinct  bracts.  The  closely  related  Beaked  Hazelnut  (Corylus  rostrata,  Ait.) 
has  its  bracts  united  and  much  prolonged  into  a  narrow  tubular  beak.  The  young  twigs 
are  covered  with  numerous  somewhat  glandular  pinkish  hairs.  The  staminate  flowers,  occurring 
in  catkins  which  develop  somewhat  in  autumn  and  then  remain  dormant  over  winter,  are 
characteristic.  The  partially  developed  staminate  aments  are  often  abnormal  and  twisted 
due  to  the  attack  of  some  organic  agent. 

RANGE — Maine  and  Ontario,  south  to  Florida  and  Kansas.  The  Beaked  Hazelnut  ranges 
from  Quebec  to  British  Columbia,  south  to  Georgia  and  Missouri. 

DISTRIBUTION   IN   PENNSYLVANIA— Both   species   are   found   locally   throughout   the   State. 

HABITAT— Both  species  frequent  the  border  of  woodlands,  hillsides,  thickets,  and  loose 
stone  fences. 

IMPORTANCE    OF    THE    SPECIES— -These    shrubs    do    not    produce    any    wood    of    commercial 
importance,     but    yield    valuable    and    greatly    prized    nuts.      The    nuts    are    common    on    our 
Both  species  are  very  attractive  and  planted   extensively  for  ornamental  purposes. 


PLATE  LI.  HAZELNUT. 

1.  Branch  with   (s)    staminate  flowers,   and   (p)    pistillate  flowers,   x  i. 

2.  Branch  with  leaves  and  fruit,   x  £. 

3.  Winter   branch   with   dense   cover   of   hairs    showing    (s)    staminate    catkins,    x   1. 

4.  Leaf  scar  with  bundle  scars,  enlarged. 

5.  Fruit  of  Beaked   Hazelnut    (Corylus   rostrata),    x   i. 


PLATE  LII.     BEECH. 

1.  Branch  with  starainate  and  pistillate  flowers  and  immature  leaves,    x  J. 

2.  A  staminate  flower,    enlarged. 

3.  A  pistillate  flcwer,    enlarged. 

4.  A  branch  with  mature  leaves  and  three  fruits,    x  J. 

5.  A  seed,  natural  size. 

«.  A  winter  branch  with  long,   slender,    and  sharp  pointed  buds,    x  i. 

1.  Terminal  section  of  a  winter  branch  with  long,    slender,    and   sharp  pointed   bud   covered    with 
many  overlapping  scales,   slightly  enlarged. 


123 


THE  BEECH  FAMILY— FAGACEAE. 

The  Beech  family  contains  some  of  the  most  important  timber  spe- 
cies and  has  its  representatives  distributed  in  nearly  all  regions  of 
the  world.  The  Pine  family  alone  surpasses  this  one  in  economic  im- 
portance. It  yields  not  only  high  grade  wood  but  also  food  in  the 
form  of  nuts,  tanning  and  dyeing  materials,  and  cork.  The  wood  is 
of  a  high  grade  and  used  extensively. 

The  members  of  the  Beech  family  have  alternate,  simple,  pinnately- 
veined,  mostly  deciduous  leaves.  A  division  of  the  family  known  as 
the  Live  Oaks  retains  its  leaves  during  the  winter.  The  flowers, 
staminate  and  pistillate,  which  are  rather  inconspicuous,  are  usually 
yellowish  to  greenish  in  color  and  found  on  different  parts  of  the 
same  tree  and  usually  on  different  parts  of  the  same  branch.  The 
inconspdcuous  flowers  of  this  family  stand  in  strong  contrast  with 
the  conspicuous  flowers  of  such  species  as  the  Magnolias,  Cherries, 
Apples,  Papaw,  and  other  broad-leaved  trees.  The  fruit  consists  of 
one  or  more  one-seeded  nuts  covered  by  an  outer  cartilaginous  and 
an  inner  membranous  covering.  It  is  usually  heavy  and  in  some 
species  matures  in  one  season  while  in  others  it  requires  two  seasons. 
On  account  of  the  heavy  weight  of  the  seeds  they  usually  fall  im- 
mediately below  the  tree  and  remain  there  unless  disseminated  by 
animals,  birds,  water,  or  gravity  on  slopes.  The  seed  fills  the  entire 
cavity  of  the  nut. 

This  family  consists  of  6  genera  and  about  400  species  of  trees  and 
shrubs  of  which  number  5  genera  with  about  60  species  occur  in  North 
America  and  3  genera  with  19  species  in  Pennsylvania.  The  3  genera 
not  found  in  Pennsylvania  are  Castanopsis,  Pasania,  and  Nothofagus. 
Representatives  of  the  first  2  genera  are  found  in  the  western  part 
of  the  United  States,  while  the  genus  Nothofagus  is  confined  to  the 
southern  hemisphere.  The  subjoined  key  will  distinguish  the  3 
genera  found  in  Pennsylvania. 

KEY  TO  THE  GENERA. 

Page. 

1.    Staminate    aments    in    globose    heads;    nuts    triangular;    buds    long,    slender,     eharp- 

pointed,    conical,    5   times   as   long   as   -wide, Fagus         124 

1.  Staminate    amenta    elongated,     slender;     nuts    not    triangular;    buds    shorter,     stout, 

dull-pointed,    not   5   times   as   long   as   wide 2 

2.  Staminate  aments   erect  or  ascending;   nuts  enclosed   in  a  prickly  bur;   buds   covered 

with  a  few  ovei lapping  scales,  terminal  ones  absent,    Castanea        124 

2.    Staminate  aments  drooping;  nuts  seated  in  an  open  scaly  cup;  buds  covered  with  many 

overlapping  scales  and  clustered  at  the  terminal  end   of  twig,    Querous        128 


124 


BEECH— FAGUS,     (Tourn.)    L. 

This  genus  comprises  trees  with  a  close,  smooth  and  grayish  bark, 
a  light  horizontal  spray,  simple  straight-veined  leaves,  hard  and  dif- 
fuse-porous wood  and  long,  slender,  conical,  sharp-pointed  buds.  The 
members  of  this  genus  are  limited  to  the  northern  hemisphere  with 
only  1  native  representative  in  America  and  4  in  the  eastern  hemis- 
phere. One  of  the  latter  is  widely  distributed  in  Europe  and  south- 
western Asia.  It  is  the  Beech  which  figures  in  ancient  literature 
and  is  now  known  as  the  European  Beech  (Fagus  sylvatica  L.). 
This  species  is  now  planted  extensively  for  ornamental  purposes  in 
America,  especially  3  varieties  of  it,  with  purple  leaves,  cut  leaves, 
and  pendant  branches  respectively.  The  wood  of  the  European 
Beech  is  used  extensively  in  France  and  Germany  for  lumber  and  fuel 
and  the  nuts  are  used  to  feed  swine.  The  nuts  also  yield  a  valuable 
oil.  The  other  species  of  the  eastern  hemisphere  are  found  in  east- 
ern Asia.  The  description  of  the  sole  native  American  representa- 
tive, found  on  page  125,  will  suffice  for  the  genus. 


CHESTNUT— CASTANE A,     (Tourn.)    Hill. 

This  genus  comprises  5  species  of  trees  and  shrubs  with  furrowed 
bark,  round  branchlets  without  terminal  buds,  ring-porous  wood 
which  is  rich  in  tannin  and  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  The 
leaves  are  simple,  alternate,  stiff,  sharp-toothed,  and  straight-veined. 
The  members  of  this  genus  blossom  in  summer  and  mature  their 
fruit  the  same  autumn  at  about  the  time  when  the  first  frost  ap- 
pears. The  fruit  consists  of  a  large  spiny  bur  in  which  1-5  nuts  are 
borne.  The  nuts  are  highly  prized  as  food.  Three  species  of  Chest- 
nuts are  cultivated  in  this  country  for  their  fruit,  the  American,  the 
European,  and  the  Japanese.  The  Chestnuts  are  confined  to  the 
northern  hemisphere,  both  eastern  and  western.  No  representatives 
of  this  genus  are  at  present  found  in  the  western  part  of  North 
America,  but  records  show  that  the  Chestnut  was  at  one  time  indi- 
genous to  this  region.  Three  species  are  native  in  eastern  North 
America,  2  of  which  attain  tree-size,  while  1  (Castanea  alnifolia, 
Nutt.)  seldom  exceeds  3  ft.  in  height  and  is  found  in  the  south 
Atlantic  states.  The  subjoined  key  will  aid  in  identifying  the  two 
species  native  to  Pennsylvania. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES. 

Page. 

1.  Large  trees;  leaves  oblong-lanceolate,  smooth  and  green  on  both  sides;  nuts  1-8, 
usually  2-8,  in  a  bnr;  buds  }  of  an  inch  long  covered  by  smooth  chestnut-brown 
scales 0.  dentata  128 

1.  Small  trees  or  shrubs;  leaves  oblong,  whitish  downy  beneath;  nuts  rounded,  usually 

one  In  a  bur;  buds  J  of  an  inch  long,  covered  by  scurfy  red  scales C.  pumila  iyr 


J25 


BEECH. 
Fagus  grandifolia,  Ehrhart. 


FORM — Large  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  50-60  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2-3  ft.,  but 
may  reach  a  height  of  125  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4J  feet.  Forest  grown  trees  tall,  slender, 
free  from  lateral  branches  for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  base,  with  a  rather  compact 
shallow  crown.  Open  grown  trees  short-trunked,  covered  with  many  lateral  branches  which 
are  often  drooping  below  and  erect  above,  forming  a  dense,  deep,  symmetrical  crown. 

BARK — Very  close,  smooth,  light  gray,  mottled  with  dark  spots.  It  invites  the  cutting 
of  initials  and  other  outline  carvings.  See  Fig.  92. 

TWIGS — Slender,  datk  yellow  to  gray,  at  first  hairy,  later  smooth,  zigzag,  covered  with 
yellowish  lenticels,  and  marked  by  oud-scale  scars. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  bud  present;  five  times  as  long  as  wide,  slender,  sharp-pointed, 
conical,  usually  smootb.  covered  by  10-20  reddish-brown  bud-scales  with  hairy  margins. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  ovate,  3-4  inches  long,  stiff  leathery,  with  tapering  apex  and 
sharp-toothed  margin;  light  green  above,  yellowish-green  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Raised,  crescent-shaped  to  elliptical  with  a  few  scattered  bundle-scars. 
Stipule-scars  narrow,  almost  encircling  twig;  one  end  of  each  stipule-scar  is  raised  above  the 
other  end. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April  when  leaves  are  one-third  developed.  Stamina  te  flowers 
In  a  stalked  round  head  about  one  inch  in  diameter;  pistillate  flowers  in  2-flowered  clusters 
from  the  axil  of  the  upper  leaves. 

FRUIT — A  stalkeil,  prickly,  4-valved  bur  containing  triangular  pale  brown,  shining  nuts 
with  sweet  edible  kernel. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous  with  minute  pores;  broad  medullary  rays  present  with  narrow  ones 
intervening;  hard,  strong,  tough,  not  durable,  difficult  to  season,  light  red  in  color.  Weighs 
42.89  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  railroad  ties,  parquet  flooring,  novelty  wares,  carpenter 
tools,  fuel,  and  charcoal. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  American  Beech  can  readily  be  distinguished  by 
its  close,  smooth,  light  gray  bark,  its  simple,  leathery,  often  persistent  leaves,  its  prickly 
and  stalked  fruit  with  triangular  seeds,  and  its  long,  slender,  conical,  sharp-pointed  reddish- 
brown  buds. 

RANGE— Nova  Scotia  to  Ontario  and  Wisconsin,  south  to  Florida  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  in  every  part  of  the  State,  but  most  abundant 
in  the  northern  part.  Local  in  the  southeastern  and  southwestern  parts. 

HABITAT — Commonly  found  on  rich  moist  bottom  lands,  but  is  also  abundant  on  gravelly 
slopes  and  rich  uplands.  It  endures  dense  shade  and  variations  of  temperature.  Rare  in  the 
limestone  valleys. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  was  formerly  not  of  very  much  commercial 
impo  tance,  but  it  is  now  becoming  more  important  since  the  process  of  timber  impregnation 
has  been  developed.  It  furnishes  excellent  fuel  and  in  some  regions  it  is  now  converted  into 
railroad  ties  and  also  manufactured  into  various  by-products  on  a  rather  extensive  scale. 
It  cannot,  however,  be  recommended  for  extensive  planting  for  forestry  purposes  but  should 
be  retained  and  developed  in  the  farmer's  woodlot  where  the  production  of  fuel  is  important. 
In  the  future  when  more  intensive  systems  of  forest  management  have  been  developed  it 
can  be  used  for  undet planting  and  as  a  soil  conserver. 


CHESTNUT. 
Castanea  dentata,  (Marshall)  Borkhausen. 

FORM — A  large  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  60-80  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3-4  ft.,  but 
may  roach  a  height  of  over  100  ft.  witn  a  diameter  of  10  feet.  A  tree  with  a  diameter  of  17 
ft.  has  been  recorded  from  Francis  Cove,  western  North  Carolina.  Open  grown  trees  have 
short  trunks  with  deep,  widespreading  crowns.  Trees  in  close  stands  tall,  with  little  stem 
taper  and  few  lateral  branches. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  fibrous,  deeply  fissured;  fissures  separate  somewhat  oblique  ridges 
which  are  covered  wit'i  dark  brown  scales.  On  young  trunks  and  older  branches  much  smoother. 
See  Fig.  82. 

TWIGS — Stout,  smootli,  greenish  to  brown,  round  or  angular,  swollen  at  the  nodes;  covered 
with  numerous  small,  white,  raised  lenticels.  Pith  star-shaped. 

BTTDS— Alternate,  axillary;  terminal  bud  absent;  ovoid,  i  of  an  inch  long,  sharp  to  blunt-pointed; 
covered  by  2-3  dark  chestnut-brown  scales. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  oblong-lanceolate,  sharp-pointed  at  apex,  toothed  on  margin, 
smooth  on  both  lowtr  and  upper  sides. 

LEAF-SCARS — Semi-cval  in  outline;  raised  from  twig;  with  numerous,  rather  inconspicuous, 
scattered,  occasionally  clustered  bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  June  or  July.  Stamina te  in  crowded  clusters  along  ament;  pistillate 
appear  at  base  of  upper  aments  as  globular  involucres. 

FRUIT — Matures  iu  September  or  October.  A  bur  covered  with  numerous,  prickly  spines 
and  containing  1-5,  usually  2-3  nuts. 

WOOD — Distinctly  rin#-porous;  with  indistinct  medullary  rays;  quite  strong  in  young  trees, 
rather  weak  in  older  ones;  yellowish-brown,  very  durable,  splits  easily,  rich  in  tannic  acid. 
Weighs  28.07  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  railroad  ties,  telegraph  poles,  fence  posts,  rails, 
cheap  furniture,  and  tannic  acid. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Chestnut  can  readily  be  distinguished  from  all 
other  trees  except  the  Chinquapin  by  its  characteristic  fruit.  See  "Distinguishing  Characteristics," 
under  Chinquapin,  page  127.  For  Genus  Description  and  Key  to  Species,  see  page  125. 

RANGE — Maine  to  Michigan,  south  to  Delaware  and  along  the  mountains  to  Alabama,  Mis- 
sissippi, and  Arkansas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Very  common  in  the  eastern,  southern  and  central 
parts  and  locally  in  other  parts.  It  is  the  most  common  tree  of  Pennsylvania. 

HABITAT — Grows  almost  on  any  kind  of  soil,  from  bottom  lands  to  mountain  tops,  but 
does  not  love  limestone  or  extremely  wet  soil.  In  the  North  it  is  common  on  glacial  drift 
but  in  the  South  it  remains  close  to  mountains  and  reaches  its  best  development  in  western 
North  Carolina  and  eastern  Tennessee. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species,  which  reproduces  itself  best  by  sprout,  but 
also  by  seed  and  seedling,  is  one  of  the  most  important  commercial  species  in  this  State. 
It  has  shown  itself  to  be  the  surest  of  all  our  trees  to  reproduce  a  stand  fully  from  sprout. 
It  grows  fast  and  is  used  for  many  purposes  in  small  as  well  as  large  sizes,  and  thus  can  be 
managed  in  short  rotation,  which  insures  a  certain  profit  on  the  investment.  A  Chestnut 
forest  managed  for  the  purpose  of  producing  telegraph  poles  should  be  run  on  rotations  of 
about  55  years.  On  poor  soil  it  may  be  necessary  to  increase  the  length  of  the  rotation.  Good 
tendance  reduces  the  length  of  the  rotation  while  the  absence .  of  it  will  not  only  increase 
the  length  but  also  result  in  an  inferior  grade  of  wood.  The  great  variety  of  uses  to  which 
the  wcod  of  this  species  is  put  will  drain  the  existing  forest  to  an  enormous  extent.  There 
ia  urgent  need  to  reproduce,  develop,  and  improve  our  existing  stands  and  also  to  guard 
against  such  destructive  organic  enemies  HS  the  Chestnut  Bark  Disease  (Endothia  gyrosa  var. 
parasitica)  commonly  known  as  the  Chestnut  Blight. 


PLATE  LIII.     CHESTNUT. 

1.  Branch  with  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  and  mature  leaves,  x 

2.  A   staminate   flower,    enlarged. 

3.  A    pistillate   flower,    enlarged. 

4    A  branch   with  a   cluster  of  closed   and  open  burs,    x  J. 

5.  A  nut,   x  £. 

6.  A  winter  branch,   x  i. 

7.  A  section  of  winter  branch,   enlarged. 


PLATE  LIV.     CHINQUAPIN. 

1.  A  flowering  branch  with  leaves,  x  J. 

2.  A    fruiting    branch    with    mature    leaves,    x    4 

3.  A  nut,    x  \. 

4.  A  winter  branch,  x  I. 

5.  A  section  of  winter  branch,    enlarged. 


127 


CHINQUAPIN. 

Castanea  pumila,  (Linnaeus)  Miller. 

FORM — A  small  tree  or  shrub  usually  attaining  a  height  of  20-30  ft.,  but  may  reach  a  height 
of  50  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  feet.  In  Pennsylvania  seldom  exceeds  20  ft.  in  height  and 
often  is  only  3-5  ft.  in  height.  This  is  the  northern  limit  of  its  distribution.  Trunk  usually 
short  and  crown  rouitdish. 

BARK — May  attain  a  thickness  of  one  inch,  usually  fissured  and  broken  into  light  reddish- 
brown  loose  plate-like  scales.  On  branches  and  young  trunks  rather  smooth,  dark  grayish-brown. 

TWIGS — Slender,  at  first  pale  woolly,  later  pubescent,  finally  smoother,  reddish-brown  to 
dark  brown;  covered  with  numerous  lenticels. 

BUDS — Alternate,  axillary;  terminal  bud  absent;  ovoid,  blunt-pointed,  about  J  of  an  inch 
long;  covered  with  scurfy  red  scales. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  oblong,  thick,  firm,  straight-veined,  sharp-pointed  at  apex, 
sharply  toothed  on  margin,  yellowish-green  and  smooth  on  upper  surface,  pale  green  and 
whitish-downy  beneath. 

LEAF-SCARS — Semi -oval,  somewhat  raised;  with  scattered,  occasionally  clustered,  rather 
inconspicuous  bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  May  or  June  in  more  or  less  spreading  aments.  Staminate  occur  In 
crowded  clusters  along  ament;  pistillate  at  base  of  upper  aments  in  ovoid,  prickly  involucres. 

FRUIT — Matures  in  September  or  October.  A  bur  covered  with  numerous  stiff  spines  and 
containing  usually  1,  seldom  2,  ovoid  bright  brown  and  sweet  nuts  with  a  moro  or  less 
hairy  apex. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  indistinct  medullary  rays;  hard,  strong,  brown,  durable,  rich 
in  tannio  acid;  splits  easily.  Weighs  about  28  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  fence  posts, 
rails,  and  railroad  ties. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Chinquapin  is  a  little  brother  of  the  Chestnut 
which  one  may  see  by  comparing  their  characteristic  fruit.  It  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
Chestnut  by  its  smaller  size,  its  whitish  down  on  lower  surface  of  leaf-blades,  its  smaller 
scurfy  red  buds,  and  smaller  burs  containing  usually  1  nut. 

RANGE — New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  to  Florida,  Missouri,   and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Locally  in  a  few  counties  in  the  southern  part  of  th« 
State.  Known  to  occur  in  the  counties  cf  Franklin,  Adams,  York,  Lancaster,  and  Chester. 

HABITAT— Usually  found  on  dry,  sandy  slopes,  rather  fertile  hillsides,  and  margins  of  ponds 
and  streams. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— It  is  of  no  commercial  importance  in  this  State  on 
account  of  its  smail  size  and  its  limited  distribution.  It  is  very  attractive  as  an  ornamental 
shrub  and  yields  delicious  nuts. 


THE  OAKS— QUEKCUS,  (Tourn.)  L. 

This  genus,  which  consists  almost  entirely  of  trees,  comprises  about 
300  species  in  the  world.  The  Oaks  are  world  famous  on  account 
of  their  wide  distribution,  physical  sturdiness,  great  strength,  and 
the  high  commercial  value  of  their  wood.  Most  of  them  attain  a 
great  age  and  are  aggressive  competitors  in  the  constant  struggle 
which  is  going  on  in  the  forest.  They  can  be  reproduced  by  sprouts 
or  by  seed,  naturally  or  artificially.  Their  modesty  recommends 
them  from  a  silvicultural  point  of  view  since  they  will  grow  in  habi- 
tats which  are  moist  or  dry,  sterile  or  fertile,  cold,  temperate  or 
tropical,  at  low  altitudes  or  at  high  altitudes  up  to  the  timber  line. 
They  prefer  the  temperate  climate. 

Economically  this  genus  is  one  of  the  most  important  among  the 
trees.  Its  wood  is  used  extensively  and  is  especially  adapted  for 
high  grade  work.  The  bark  is  rich  in  tannin,  while  that  of  a  few 
European  species  is  used  for  cork.  The  galls  which  are  caused  by 
insect  stings  are  also  often  rich  in  tannin.  The  nuts  are  used  in 
some  places  as  food  for  man  and  swine,  and  occasionally  when 
roasted  form  a  substitute  for  coffee. 

The  leaves  are  alternate,  simple,  and  usually  shed  in  autumn.  A 
division  of  the  Oaks  known  as  the  Evergreen  or  Live  Oaks,  sheds 
the  leaves  at  the  end  of  the  second  or  third  season.  The  flowers, 
staminate  and  pistillate,  appear  on  different  parts  of  the  same  tree 
and  often  on  different  parts  of  the  same  branch.  The  staminate  or 
male  flowers  are  small  and  arranged  singly  on  a  long  slender  and 
drooping  ament  which  emerges  from  the  buds  on  the  twigs  of  the 
previous  year's  growth.  The  pistillate  or  female  flowers  are  small, 
inconspicuous,  urn-like  bodies  which  appear  singly  or  in  groups  from 
the  base  of  the  developing  leaves  of  the  season.  The  flowers  are 
fertilized  by  the  wind  and  develop  into  a  nut-like  fruit  known  as  an 
acorn.  The  fruit  is  distinctive  in  having  a  scaly,  often  bristly  cup 
separated  from  the  thin-shelled  nut  which  it  partly  or  almost  wholly 
encloses.  In  autumn  the  nuts  may  fall  to  the  ground  while  the  cups 
persist  on  the  tree,  or  the  nut  and  cup  may  fall  together.  The  acorns 
may  germinate  immediately  after  falling  to  the  ground,  but 
usually  they  remain  dormant  until  the  following  spring.  The 
seed-leaves  of  the  nut  remain  in  the  shell  and  furnish  nourishment 
to  the  developing  seedling.  A  long  tap  root  is  characteristic  of  an 
oak  seedling.  This  makes  them  difficult  to  transplant  in  a  nursery 
or  to  plant  in  the  place  where  they  are  to  develop  into  large  trees. 
A  large  part  of  the  first  two  seasons'  growth  of  many  of  our  Oaks 
is  concentrated  mostly  in  the  development  of  a  root  system.  The 


129 

acorns  are  heavy  and  disseminated  mainly  by  water,  mammals,  birds, 
and  gravity  on  slopes.  The  fruit  of  some  Oaks  matures  in  one  season, 
while  others  require  two  seasons.  At  the  end  of  the  first  season  the 
latter  appear  as  immature  acorns.  The  mature  fruit  of  the  annual 
fruiting  Oaks  is  attached  to  the  growth  of  the  season,  while  that  of 
the  biennial  fruiting  Oaks  is  attached  to  last  season's  growth.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  season,  immature  acorns  of  the  biennial  fruiting  Oaks 
are  found  on  the  growth  of  the  previous  season.  The  Oaks  of  Penn- 
sylvania may  be  classified  in  two  groups: 

A.  Acorns    mature    in    one    season;    leaves    with    rounded    lobes,    not    bristle-pointed;    shell 

of  nut  usually  smooth  inside;   kernel  usually  sweet;   bark  pale  often  scaly — WHITE 
OAKS,    ANNUAL    OAKS,    LEPIDOBALANITS. 

B.  Acorns  mature  in  two  seasons;  leaves  or  their  lobes  bristle-pointed;  shell  or  nut  usually 

pubescent   inside;    bark    dark    usually    furrowed — BLACK    OAKS,    BIENNIAL    OAKS, 
ERYTHROBALANUS. 

The  subjoined  list  shows  the  respective  groups  to  which  the  sev- 
eral Oaks  of  Pennsylvania  belong. 

White   Oak  group: 

1.  White  Oak,    Quercus  alba. 

2.  Swamp   Oak,    Quercus  bicolor. 

3.  Post    Oak,     Quercus  stellata. 

4.  Chestnut   Oak Quercus  Prinus. 

5.  Yellow     Oak,      Quercus  Muhlenbergii. 

6.  Bur     Oak,     Quercus  macrocarpa. 

7.  Chinquapin    Oak, Quercus  prinoides. 

Black  Oak  group: 

8.  Black    Oak Quercus  velutina. 

9.  Red     Oak Quercus  rubra. 

10.  Scarlet     Oak,     Quercus  coccinea. 

11.  Pin  Oak,    Quercus  palustris. 

12.  Spanish    Oak,     Quercus  falcata. 

13.  Scrub    Oak Quercus  ilicifolia. 

14.  Black    Jack    Oak,      Quercus  marilandica. 

15.  Laurel     Oak,      Quercus  imbricaria. 

16.  Willow    Oak,    Quercus  phellos. 

Of  the  300  species  of  Oaks  which  are  known,  about  55  species  are 
native  to  North  America,  and  16  species  to  the  State  of  Pennsylva- 
nia. Of  the  16  species  native  to  Pennsylvania,  7  belong  to  the  White 
Oak  group  and  9  to  the  Black  Oak  group.  The  centre  of  distribu- 
tion of  this  genus  is  in  the  mountains  of  Central  America  and  Mexico. 
A  few  species  are  found  in.  Europe.  The  subjoined  keys  will  identify 
the  species  native  to  Pennsylvania. 


180 


KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES  BASED  PRIMARILY  ON  FRUIT  AND  BUDS. 

Page. 

1.  Acorns  maturing  at  end  of  second  season -on  last  season's  growth;  immature  acorns 
may  be  present  in  winter;  shell  of  nut  hairy  inside;  scales  on  acorn-cup  usually 
broad  and  thin,  2 

1.  Acorns  maturing  at  end  of  first  season  on  growth  of  season;   immature  acorns  never 

present  in  winter;   shell  of  nut  not  hairy   inside;    scales  of  acorn-cup   more  or  less 
knobby ...10 

2.  Buds  large;  terminal  ones  usually  over  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long,    3 

2.  Buds  smaller;  terminal  ones  one-fifth  of  an  inch  or  less  in  length, 7 

3.  Buds  coated  with  rusty   brown  hairs   prominently   angled,    4 

3.  Buds   not   coated   with   msty    brown   hairs;   not   prominently    angled 5 

4.  Inner   bark   yellow;    buds   i-$   of   an   inch   long;    acorn-cup    top-shaped    to   hemispheric, 

Q.     velutina         142 

4.  Inner    bark    not    yellow;    buds    i    of    an    inch    long    or    less;    acorn-cup    hemispheric 

Q.   marilandica         145 

5.  Buds    sharp-pointed,     6 

5.  Buds  blunt-pointed,   the  widest  part,  at  or  just  below  middle;  evidently  woolly  above 

middle,     Q.     coccinea.         141 

6.  Acorn-cups   saucer-shaped;    buds   glabrous   except   sometimes   slightly   hairy    near   apex; 

bark  fissured  with    intervening  broad  smooth  ridges;    branches  straight,    .  ...Q.  rubra         139 

6.  Acorn-cups   hemispheric;    buds   light   brown   and   hairy;    bark   shallowly   fissured,    with 

scaly    ridges,    brarching    zigzag Q.    falcata        143 

7.  Twigs  during  first  winter  dull,    finally   hairy;    shrubs,    Q.    ilicifolia         144 

?•    Twigs  smooth  and  shining  during  first  winter;   trees,    8 

8.  Pin-like  projections  oi<  lateral  branches  numerous,   standing  almost  at  right  angles  to 

branch;   trunk  continuous;  acorn-cup  saucer-shaped,    Q.   palustris         140 

8.  Pin-like   projections    not    present;    trunk    divided 9 

9.  Acorn-cups  saucer- shaped;  buds  dark  brown;  twigs  stouter,   Q.  phellos        147 

9.    Acorn-cups  hemispheric;  buds  light  brown  and  angular;   twigs  slender,    ..Q.  imbricaria         146 

10.    Buds  narrow,  conical,  sharp-pointed,  1  of  an  inch  or  more  in  length,   11 

10.  Buds  obtuse,  short,  usually  about  J  of  an  inch  long,   13 

11.  Buds    pubescent,    usually    sharp-pointed,    lateral    buds    generally    appressed;    bark    on 

older   twigs  with  corky   ridges;   acorn-cups   fringed,    Q.    macrocarpa        134 

11.  Buds    smooth,    lateral    buds    divergent;    twigs    without    corky    ridges;    acorn-cups    not 

fringed 12 

12.  Acorns  sessile;    twigs  slender  and  hairy  to  smooth,    Q.    Muhelnbergii         136 

12.  Acorns  evidently  stalked;  twigs  stouter  and  smooth,    Q.   Prinus        137 

13.  Bark   on   branchlets   peeling   into   long,    dark,    layer-like    scales;  acorns    long    stalked, 

Q.bicolor         135 

13.  Bark  on  branchiate  not  peeling  off  into  long,  dark,  layer-like  scales,   14 

14.  Twigs    usually    coated    with    yellowish-brown    wool;    buds    about    as    long    as    broad, 

Q.    stellata         133 

14.  Twigs    smooth 15 

15.  Twigs  slender;  shrub  or  small  tree;  buds  about  as  long  as  broad;  acorn-cup  enclose* 

i  of  nut,    Q.   prinoides         138 

15.    Twigs  stout;  large  tree;  buds  longer  than  broad;  acorn-cup  encloses  J  of  nut,..Q.  alba        132 


131 


KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES  BASED  PRIMARILY  ON  LEAVES  AND  FRUIT. 

Page. 

1.    Leaf -blades  or  their  lobes  bristle-tipped;  acorns  maturing  at  end  of  the  second  season; 
nuts   often    pubescent    within,    2 

1.  Leaf-blades  or   their   lobes   or   teeth   without   bristle   tips;    acorns    maturing   at   end  of 

the  first  season;  nuts  often  glabrous  within, 10 

2.  Leaf-blades  entire;  rarely  lobed  or  toothed  except  on  vigorous  coppice  shoots,   3 

2.  Leaf-blades   pinnatifid,    pinnately-lobed   or   dilated    at   apex,    4 

3.  Lower    surface    of    leaf -blades    glabrous, Q,    phellos        147 

3.  Lower  surface  of  leaf -blades  pubescent Q.    imbricaria         146 

4.  Leaf-blades    pinnatifid   or   pinnately-lobed,     5 

4.    Leaf-blades  dilated  at  apex;  obovate  brown  tomentose  on  lower  surface,   Q.  marilandica         145 


5.    Leaf -blades  green  on  both  upper  and  lower  surfaces, 
5.    Leaf-blades   pubescent   on    lower   surface 


6.    Lobes    of    leaf-blades    about    equal    the    width    of    the    middle   portion    or   body   of   the 

lea  f Q.     rubra         139 

6.  Lcbes  of   leaf-blades   2-6   times   as   long   as   the   breadth   of   the   narrowest   portion   or 

body  of  the  leaf,    7 

7.  Trunk  continuous,   covered  by  short,   slender,   often  horizontal  lateral  branches;   acorn- 

cups    saucer-shaped,     Q.    palustris         140 

7.  Trunk  usually  branched;    covered   by   rather  long,    usually   stout  and  ascending   lateral 

branches;    acorn-cups   top-shaped Q.    coccinea,         141 

6.    Leaf -blades  brown  or  rusty  pubescent  on  lower  surface;  inner  bark  yellow,  Q.  velutina.         142 

8.  Leaf -blades  gray  or  white  pubescent  on  lower  surface;  inner  bark  not  yellow,    9 

9.  Lobes  of  leaf -blades  long  and  lanceolate,  often  scythe-shaped;,  large  tree,   Q.  falcata        143 

9.    Lobes    of    leaf -blades    short    and    triangular,    usually    five    in    number;    small    tree    or 

shrub,     Q.     ilicifolia         144 

10.    Leaf-blades  deeply  lobed 11 

10.  Leaf  -blades    coarsely    toothed,     13 

11.  Mature  leaf-blades  glabrous  and  pale  on  lower  surface;   cups   shallow,    Q,.    alba         132 

11.  Mature    leaf-blades    pubescent    on    lower    surface;    cup    encloses    at    least    one-third    of 

nut 12 

12.  Mature   leaf-bladef-    rusty-pubescent   below;    leaves   usually   5-lobed;    stellate   pubescent 

above  with   three  terminal   large   rounded   or  squarish   lobes;   upper   scales   of  acorn- 
cup   not   awned,    Q.    stellata         133 

12.  Mature    leaf -blades    white    tomentose    beneath;    leaves    usually    5-7-lobed    with    single 

large    oval    and    crenate    terminal    lobe;    upper    scales    of    acorn-cup    awned    with    a 
heavy    fringe,     Q.    macrocarpa         134 

13.  Leaf-blades  broadest  at  or  below  the  middle,  oblong  to  lanceolate,  decidedly  pointed  at 

apex,   usually  exceeding  six  inches  in  length,    14 

13.  Leaf-blades    broadest    above     the    middle,     oblong     to    oblong     obovate,     pointed     to 

rounded  at  apex,  seldom  exceeding  six  inches  in  length 15 

14.  Leaf -blades  with  acuminate  apex;   slender  petiole;   acorn   sessile,    Q.   Muhlenbergii         136 

14.  Leaf -blades    with    acute    apex;    stouter    petiole;    acorn    stalked,    Q.    Prinus.         137 

15.  Tall    tree;    bark    on   small   branches    often    peeling   off    in    dark    scales;    acorns    long- 

stalked Q.     bioolor         135 

15.    Shrub  or  small   tree;    bark  on   small   branches    smooth;    acorn    sessile Q.    prinoides         138 


132 

WHITE  OAK. 

Quercus  alba,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — A  very  large  and  valuable  tree,  usually  attaining  height  of  70-88  ft.  but  may  reach 
a  maximum  height  of  140  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  8  ft.  when  grown  In  a  closed  stand.  When 
grown  in  a  dense  stand  (Fig.  11)  it  has  a  clean  continuous  trunk  often  free  from  lateral 
branches  for  75  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  5  ft.,  and  little  stem  taper.  When  £rown  in  the 
open  (Fig.  21)  it  divides  near  the  ground  into  a  great  many  lateral  branches  which  are 
gnarled  and  twisted  forming  a  deep,  wide,  and  irregular  crown  or  occasionally  a  symmetrical 
crown.  Open  grown  trees  produce  a  very  small  quantity  of  timber  of  commercial  importance. 

BARK — On  smaller  branches  light  green  to  reddish-green;  on  mature  trunks  up  to  2  inches 
thick,  usually  light  gray  or  white,  shallowly  fissured  into  flat,  irregular  scales  often  very  loosely 
attached.  Occasionally  the  bark  of  trunk  appears  roughly  ridged  and  without  scales.  See  Fig.  73. 

TWIGS — During  first  summer  light  green,  tinged  with  red,  coated  with  loose,  pale  hairs. 
First  winter  slender,  smooth,  reddish  to  gray,  covered  with  numerous,  light,  minute,  elevated 
lenticels.  Pith  star-shaped. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  buds  clustered;  broadly  ovate,  obtuse,  reddish-brown,  J  of  an  inch 
long. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  5-9  inches  long,  2-4  inches  wide,  obovate  in  outline,  with  3-9,  but 
usually  7  ascending  lobes;  lobes  blunt  at  apex  and  separated  by  deep  round-based  sinuses.  When 
full  grown  thin,  bright  green  and  smooth  above,  and  pale,  smooth,  and  occasionally  glaucous 
below. 

LEAF-SCABS — Alternate,  raised,  concave  to  round  above,  rounded  below.  A  decurrent  ridge 
often  continues  from  raised  leaf -scar  which  makes  the  twig  5- angled  on  account  of  5-ranked 
arrangement  of  leaf -scars.  Bundle-scars  are  numerous,  scattered,  inconspicuous.  The  leaf- 
scars  of  the  Oaks  of  this  State  so  closely  resemble  each  other  that  a  description  of  a  leaf- 
ecar  of  one  species  will  suffice  for  all. 

FLOWERS — Flowers  appear  in  May  when  the  leaves  are  about  J  developed.  Staminate  flowers 
are  borne  in  hairy  aments  2J-3  inches  long.  Calyx  is  very  hairy  and  yellow.  Stamens  extend 
beyond  calyx.  Anthers  are  yellow  and  notched.  Pistillate  flowers  are  borne  on  short  stalks,  with 
hairy  involucral  scales  and  red  spreading  styles. 

FRUIT — An  acorn,  maturing  during  one  season,  sessile  or  short-stalked.  Nut  ovoid,  rounded 
at  apex,  shiny,  light  brown,  f  of  an  inch  long,  inclosed  for  1  length  in  cup.  Meat  of  nut  Is  sweet 
and  edible.  Cup  bowl-shaped,  slightly  tomentose  on  inside,  covered  with  numerous  scales  whi<*h 
are  thin,  short,  flat,  blunt-pointed  near  rim,  thickened  and  knobby  near  the  base. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  very  conspicuous  medullary  rays;  strong,  heavy,  hard,  close-grained, 
durable  in  contact  with  soil,  light  brown  with  lighter  sapwood.  The  most  valuable  of  all  oak 
wood.  Weighs  46.35  Ihs  per  cubic  foot.  Used  in  construction,  ship  building,  tight  cooperage, 
furniture,  railroad  ties,  manufacture  of  wagons,  agricultural  implements,  interior  finish  of 
houses,  fences  and  fuel. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — In  summer  one  can  distinguish  the  White  Oak  very 
readily  by  its  loose  scaly,  grayish  or  white  bark  from  which  it  takes  its  common  name,  and  by 
its  deeply  round-lobed  leaves  with  a  smooth  and  pale  lower  surface  when  mature.  In  winter 
it  has  some  characteristics  apparently  in  common  with  some  other  Oaks  but  can  be  distinguished 
from  the  Red,  Black,  Scarlet,  Chestnut,  and  Yellow  Oaks  by  its  obtuse,  rather  small  buds;  from 
ths  Swamp  White  Oak  by  the  slender  reddish  to  grayish  twigs  and  the  absence  of  dark  loose 
peeling  flakes  on  the  branches;  from  the  Post  Oak  by  the  absence  of  greenish  rusty  pubescence 
or  the  twigs;  from  the  Pin  Oak  by  the  absence  of  stiff  lateral  pins  on  the  branches  and  the  more 
obtuse  buds;  from  the  Bur  Oak  by  the  absence  of  corky  wings  on  the  branches.  In  addition  to 
these  characteristics  the  acorns  and  leaves  which  often  persist  will  aid  considerably  in  recognizing 
the  different  species.  A  careful  study  of  the  key  to  the  species  will  help  in  bringing  out  additional 
distinguishing  characteristics. 

RANGE — Maine   to   Minnesota,    south    to    Florida   and   Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Abundant  throughout  the  eastern,  central,  and  south- 
ern parts,  and  rather  common  at  least  locally,  in  the  northern  and  western  parts.  It  is  the 
commonest  tree  in  southern  Allegheny,  Washington,  and  Greene  counties. 

HABITAT — It  is  tolerant  of  many  soils,  growing  on  sandy  plains,  gravelly  ridges,  rich  uplands, 
and  moist  bottomlands.  It  reaches  its  best  development  in  rich  moist  soil. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  White  Oak  is  the  most  important  hardwood  species  of 
Pennsyvania.  It  is  a  slow  grower  but  develops  an  exceptionally  high  grade  material.  Artificial  re- 
generation by  planting  Is  diflicult.  Sprouting  cannot  be  depended  upon.  Natural  seed  regenera- 
tion is  the  best  method  by  which  this  species  can  be  successfully  reproduced.  German  experimenta- 
tion has  shown  conclusively  that  the  natural  method  is  superior  to  the  artificial,  especially  with 
Oak.  The  great  value  of  its  timber  will  justify  attempts  to  grow  this  species  In  forest  standff 
of  considerable  extent. 


PLATE  LV.     WHITE  OAK. 


1.  Flowering   branch   with   immature   leaves    (s) 

staminate  blossoms,    (p)  pistillate  blossoms, 

2.  A   staminate   flower,    enlarged. 

3.  A    pistillate    flower,    enlarged. 

4.  Branch     with     mature     leaves     and     mature 

acorns,   x  J. 

5.  Acorn   cup,    x  J. 

6.  Acorn,  basal  view,  x  J. 

7.  Longitudinal    section    of    acorn    showing    em- 

bryo,   x   J. 


8.  Germinating   acorn   with   its   young   root   and 

shoot,    x   i. 

9.  Winter  branch,   x  J. 

10.  Terminal    section    of    winter    branch    showing 

bud    with    overlapping    scales,     a    leaf-scar 
with  bundle-scars,  and  lenticels,  enlarged. 

11.  Cross    section    of    twig    showing    pentangular 

pith,     wood     with     conspicuous     medullary 
rays,   inner  and  outer  bark,  enlarged. 


PLATE  LVI.     POST  OAK. 

1.  Branch  with   mature  leaves   and   mature  acorns,    x   J. 

2.  Flowering  branch  with  immature  leaves,    (s)   staminate  blossoms,    (p)    pistillate  blossoms,   x  J. 

3.  An  acorn  cup,  x  J. 

4.  An  acorn,   basal  view,   x  J. 

5.  Lower  surface  view  of  mature  leaf  showing  the  dense  star-shaped   pubescence,    x   i. 

6.  Winter  branch  covered  with  a  dense  rusty  pubescence,    x  J. 

7.  Section  of  winter  branch  showing  slightly  pubescent  buds,  leaf-scars  with  bundle-scars,  lenticels. 

and  the  dense  rusty  pubescent  bark,   natural  size. 


133 


POST  OAK. 

Quercus  stellata,  Wangenheim. 


FORM — A  medium-sized  tree,  usually  attaining  height  of  50-60  ft.  but  may  reach  a  maximum 
height  of  90  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4  feet.  In  the  open  it  forms  a  dense,  broad,  deep,  round- 
topped  crown  with  stout  and  spreading  branches.  Toward  its  northern  limit  it  is  a  large  shrub. 

BARK — On  trunks  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  White  Oak  only  darker  and  often  rougher  and 
less  scaly.  On  young  branches  it  is  often  covered  with  loose,  dark  scales. 

TWIGS— Stout,  covered  with  yellowish  rusty  pubescence,  at  first  light  orange  In  color,  later 
dark  brown.  Season's  growth  stands  in  strong  contrast  with  later  growth  on  account  of  much 
lighter  color.  Pubescence  soon  turns  dark  and  finally  disappears. 

BTJDS — Alternate,  broadly  ovate,  about  J  of  an  inch  long,  sometimes  as  broad  as  long, 
blunt-pointed,  covered  with  numerous  overlapping,  reddish-brown,  slightly  pubescent  scales. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  obovate  in  outline,  4-7  inches  long,  3-5  inches  wide,  thick, 
leathery,  generally  5-lobed;  the  middle  pair  of  lobes  is  the  largest  and  is  separated  by  deep 
sinuses;  upper  surface  of  leaf  is  bright  green,  shiny;  lower  surface  is  paler  and  coated  with 
rusty  pubescence. 

LEAF-SCARS — See  "Leaf-Scars"  under  White  Oak,  page  132. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May.  Staminate  borne  In  slender  aments  4-6  Inches  long.  Pistillate 
sessile  or  short-stalked,  woolly;  stigmas  bright  red. 

FRTIIT — An  acorn,  maturing  at  end  of  first  season;  usually  sessile,  occurs  solitary,  in  pairs  or 
clustered.  Nut  oval,  J-f  of  an  inch  long,  hairy  at  apex,  longitudinally  striped  with  darker 
brown,  inclosed  by  cup  for  $-*  of  its  length.  Cup  thin,  hairy  within,  and  covered  with  thin, 
pale,  flat  woolly  scales. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  conspicuous  medullary  rays;  heavy,  hard,  close-grained,  very  durable, 
light  to  dark  brown,  with  light  sapwoodi  Weighs  52.14  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  White  Oak.  It  is  found  on  the  market  mixed  with  White  Oak. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — In  summer  the  Post  Oak,  also  known  as  Iron  Oak, 
may  at  once  be  recognized  by  the  peculiar  form  of  its  leaves,  with  large  rounded  or  squarish 
lobes.  The  three  terminal  lobes  are  the  largest  and  the  basal  lobes  taken  together  are  wedge-shaped 
in  outline.  The  rigid  leathery  leaves  with  their  shiny  green  upper  surface  and  rusty  pubescent 
lower  surface,  and  the  rusty  pubescent  twigs  are  characteristic.  In  winter  its  short  obtuse  buds 
and  stout  rusty  pubescent  twigs  are  distinctive.  The  buds  have  also  a  brighter  reddish  color  than 
those  of  the  White  Oak. 

RANGE — Massachusetts,   central  Pennsylvania,   Kansas,   south  to  Florida  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  locally  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts,  but 
not  in  the  western  and  northern. 

HABITAT — Common  on  dry  rocky  soil.  Found  on  gravelly  uplands,  limestone  hills,  and  sandy 
plains. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Post  Oak  closely  resembles  the  White  Oak,  especially 
in  the  wood,  which  is  sold  as  White  Oak.  On  account  of  its  limited  distribution  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  the  superiority  of  the  White  Oak,  this  species  cannot  be  recommended  for 
forestry  purposes  on  an  extensive  scale.  It  will,  however,  grow  on  poorer  soil  than  the  White 
Oak  and  might  be  established  upon  such  areas.  It  is  difficult  to  transplant  and  grows  slowly. 


134 


BUR  OAK. 

Quercus  macrocarpa,  Michaux. 

FORM — Usually  attains  height  of  about  70-80  feet  but  may  reach  a  maximum  height  of  170 
feet  with  a  diameter  of  6-7  feet.  It  attains  its  greatest  height  in  Illinois  and  Indiana.  It  has 
broad  spreading  branches  which  form  a  broad  round-topped  crown.  In  the  forest  the  crown  is 
usually  contracted  and  covers  only  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk.  It  is  a  giant  among  its  associ- 
ates. 

BABE — Intermediate  between  flaky  bark  of  White  Oak  and  very  roughly  ridged  bark  of 
Chestnut  Oak. 

TWIGS — Stout,  covered  with  pale,  raised  and  inconspicuous  lenticels,  yellowish-brown,  at  first 
hairy,  later  smooth,  with  corky  wings  often  1J  inches  wide. 

BUDS — Alternate,  broadly-ovate,  about  J  of  an  inch  long,  acute  or  obtuse,  reddish-brown, 
slightly  pubescent.  Lateral  buds  are  closely  appressed. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  6-12  inches  long,  3-6  inches  wide,  obovate  or  oblong;  5-7  lobed; 
sinuses  round-based;  terminal  lobe  largest;  smooth,  shiny,  and  dark  green  above;  paler  and  finely 
hairy  beneath. 

LEAF-SCARS— See  "Leaf -Scars"  under  White  Oak,  page  132. 

FLOWERS — Mature  about  May.  Staminate  flowers  borne  in  slender  ament  4-6  inches  long. 
Pistillate  sessile  or  short-stalked,  with  bright  red  stigmas  and  hairy  scales. 

FRUIT — An  acorn,  maturing  during  first  season;  sessile  or  stalked,  usually  solitary.  Nut 
ovate,  4/5 — 2  inches  long,  covered  with  down.  Cup  deep,  embracing  from  i  to  entire  nut,  light 
brown,  downy  on  inner  side,  covered  with  large  imbricated  scales  forming  a  distinct  fringe  near 
the  margin. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  conspicuous  medullary  rays;  heavy,  hard,  strong,  close-grained, 
very  durable,  brownish  with  light  thin  sapwood.  Weighs  46.45  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  the 
same  purposes  as  White  Oak  from  which  it  is  not  distinguished  on  the  market. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — In  summer  the  Bur  Oak,  also  known  as  Over-cup  or 
Mossy-cup  Oak,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  unique  leaves,  which  have  deep,  rounded  sinuses 
that  reach  almost  to  the  midrib  and  divide  each  side  of  a  leaf  almost  into  two  parts.  The  lobes 
on  the  front  part  are  rather  squarish  and  those  on  the  basal  part  triangular.  The  pubescence 
on  the  lower  side  of  the  leaves  and  the  corky  winged  projections  on  the  branches  are  also 
characteristic.  In  winter  the  corky  winged  projections  on  the  branches,  the  closely  appressed  and 
pubescent  buds,  the  distinctly  fringed  acorn  cups,  and  the  persistent  leaves  are  characteristic. 

RANGE — Nova  Scotia  to  Manitoba,   south  to  Pennsylvania,   Kansas  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Rare  or  local  in  the  eastern,  southern,  and  western 
parts  of  the  State.  Not  reported  from  other  parts. 

HABITAT — Prefers  low  rich  bottomlands  but  can  grow  upon  a  variety  of  soils.  It  does  not 
thrive  on  uplands  so  well  as  the  White  Oak,  grows  much  slower  than  the  Red  Oak,  and  is  rather 
intolerant  of  shade. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— It  is  one  of  the  very  largest  of  American  Oaks,  has  a  wide 
distribution,  and  occurs  in  pure  and  in  mixed  stands.  This  species  produces  valuable  wood 
especially  adapted  to  quarter-sawing  on  account  of  conspicuous  medullary  rays.  It  should  be  re- 
generated especially  in  the  Mississippi  basin  where  it  develops  at  its  optimum.  This  tree  is  also 
very  attractive  as  an  ornamental  or  shade  tree,  since  it  withstands  smoke  more  than  most  other 
Oaks,  and  Is  relatively  free  from  disease. 


PLATE  LVII.     BUR  OAK. 

1.  Flowering  branch  with  immature  leaves,    (s)    staminate  blossoms,    (p)    pistillate  blossoms,    x   J. 

2.  Branch   with   mature  leaves   and   mature   acorns,    x   h 

3.  An  acorn  cup,    x  J. 

4.  An  acorn,   x  j. 

5.  A  winter  branch  showing  buds,    leaf-scars,    and  raised   corky   ridges,    x    i. 

6.  Terminal   section   of    winter    branch    showing    bud    with    overlapping    scales    and    leaf  scar    with 

bundle-scars,    enlarged. 

7.  Basal  bud-scalo  with  hairy  margin,    enlarged. 

8.  Apical  bud-scale  with  hairy  serrate  margin,   enlarged, 


PLATE  LVIII.     SWAMP  WHITE  OAK. 

1.  Flowering  branch  with  immature  leaves,    (s)    staminate  blossoms,    (p)    pistillate  blossoms,   z  i. 

2.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  and  mature  long-stalked  acorns,  x  i. 

3.  An  acorn,  x  i. 

4.  An  acorn  cup,  x  J. 

5.  A   winter  twig,    x  J. 

6.  A   winter  twig  with  buds,    lenticels,    leaf-scars,    and   pentangular  pith,    enlarged. 

7.  Section  of  winter  branch  showing  dark,    broken,    and   scaly   outer  bark,    enlarged. 


135 


SWAMP  WHITE  OAK. 
Quercus  bicolor,  Willdenow. 

FORM — An  average-sized  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  60-70  ft.,  occasionally  attaining 
a  height  of  100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  feet.  In  the  open  it  develops  a  broad,  open,  round- 
topped  crown  with  the  upper  branches  ascending,  the  lower  often  drooping.  Scraggy  and  peeling 
branches  make  it  rather  unattractive.  In  dense  stands  the  trunk  is  clean  and  continuous. 

BARK — On  young  branches  reddish-brown,  smooth,  soon  beceming  rough  and  unkempt  by  peel- 
ing into  long,  persistent,  dark  scales  and  exposing  light  inner  bark.  On  old  trunks  thick,  grayish- 
brown,  deeply  fissured  into  long,  often  continuous,  flat  ridges  which  break  up  into  small  gray 
scales.  See  Fig.  77. 

TWIGS — Stout,  yellowish  to  reddish-brown,  usually  smooth,  covered  with  pale  raised  lenticels; 
pith  star-shaped. 

BUDS — Alternate,  broadly  ovate,  obtuse,  $-i  of  an  inch  long,  covered  with  light  chestnut- 
brown  scales,  often  slightly  hairy  towards  the  apex. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  usually  obovate  in  outline,  5-6  inches  long,  2-4  inches  wide, 
rounded  at  narrowed  apex,  coarsely  dentate  on  margin,  with  shallow  rounded  lobes;  upper 
surface  shining  dark  yellowish-green;  lower  surface  light  green  and  finely  hairy. 

LEAF-SCARS — See  "Leaf-Scars"  under  White  Oak,  page  132. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  about  i  developed.  Staminate  flowers  occur 
in  hairy  aments  4-5  inches  long.  Pistillate  are  borne  on  short-stalks,  either  solitary  or  few  in  a 
cluster. 

FRUIT — An  acorn,  maturing  during  one  season,  solitary  or  few  in  a  cluster,  usually  borne  on  a 
long  stalk.  Nut  oblong,  J-1J  inches  long,  chestnut-brown,  usually  hairy  at  apex.  Cup  deeply 
saucer-shaped,  thick,  enclosing  J  of  nut,  hairy  inside,  covered  with  pale  woolly  scales  which 
are  rather  thickened  near  base,  and  thin,  narrow,  often  fringed  at  margin. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  with  rather  conspicuous  medullary  rays.  It  possesses  the  same  physical 
characteristics  as  the  White  Oak,  and  is  sold  on  the  market  as  White  Oak.  Weighs  47.75  Ibs. 
per  cubic  foot. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Swamp  White  Oak  can  be  distinguished  from  all 
other  Oaks  at  any  season  of  the  year  by  the  bark  on  the  younger  branches  which  peels  off  into 
thin  large  plates  as  in  the  Buttonwood  tree.  In  summer  this  species  can  be  recognized  by  the 
leaves  which  have  shallow  sinuses  between  the  lobes,  giving  the  leaf  a  broad  effect.  In  fall  the 
long-stalked  acorns  with  their  cups  enclosing  about  J  of  nut  are  characteristic.  In  winter  the 
rather  stout,  yellowish  to  reddish-brown  twigs  bearing  buds  with  light  chestnut-brown  scales  and 
the  irregular,  often  drooping,  growth  of  the  lower  lateral  branches  is  peculiar  to  this  species. 

RANGE — Maine  and  Quebec  to  Michigan,  south  to  Georgia  and  Arkansas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Reported  from  eight  counties  In  the  eastern  and  south- 
ern parts  of  the  State,  one  in  the  western  part,  and  common  in  the  northwestern. 

HABITAT — Frequents  rich  soils  on  borders  of  swamps  and  streams. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Swamp  White  Oak  is  an  important  tree  but  Its  propaga- 
tion should  not  be  recommended  or  attempted  where  the  White  Oak  will  grow.  Its  lateral 
branches  have  a  tendency  to  persist  which  results  in  an  inferior  grade  ef  lumber.  It  has  no 
ornamental  qualities  which  especially  recommend  it  for  such  planting. 


136 


YELLOW  OAK. 

Quercus  Muhlenbergii,  Engelmann. 

FORM — An  average-sized  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  40-50  ft.,  but  occasionally  may 
reach  a  height  of  100  ft.,  with  a  diameter  of  3-4  feet.  Rather  stunted  in  growth  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  its  distribution  and  attains  its  maximum  development  along  the  Wabash  river  in 
Indiana  and  Illinois.  Lateral  branches  are  relatively  small  forming  a  narrow,  often  shallow, 
round-topped  head.  Trunk  often  widely  buttressed  at  base. 

BARK — Thick,  rough,  close,  fissured  into  long,  irregular  ridges  which  break  up  into  grayish 
to  brownish  scales. 

TWIGS — Slender,  reddish-brown  to  grayish-brown,  at  first  hairy  becoming  smooth,  longitudinally 
ridged,  covered  with  pale  lenticels;  pith  star-shaped. 

BUDS — Ovoid,  sharp-pointed,  about  1/6  of  an  inch  long,  covered  by  numerous  overlapping,  light 
chestnut-brown  scales  which  are  slightly  hairy  along  margin.  The  buds  show  a  general  resem- 
blance to  those  of  the  Chestnut  Oak  only  are  smaller. 

LEAVES — Resemble  those  of  the  Chestnut  Oak  but  have  a  more  acuminate  apex;  also  re- 
semble those  of  the  common  Chestnut  with  incurved  teeth. 

LEAF-SCARS— See  "Leaf -Scars"  under  White  Oak,  page  132. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  about  J  developed.  Staminate  flowers  occur 
in  hairy  amcnts,  3-4  inches  long.  Pistillate  flowers  sessile  or  short-stalked  with  bright  red 
stigmas. 

FRUIT — An  acorn,  maturing  during  one  season,  usually  sessile,  occasionally  short-stalked. 
Nut  ovoid,  J-l  inch  long,  pubescent  at  apex,  light  chestnut-brown.  Cup  thin,  encloses  about  J 
of  nut,  covered  by  pale  brown  woolly  scales  with  thickened  bases  and  thin  tips  often  forming  a 
fringe  along  the  margin. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  with  less  prominent  medullary  rays  than  most  Oaks;  heavy,  hard, 
strong,  durable  in  contact  with  soil.  A  distinct  difference  between  spring  and  summer  wood. 
Used  for  same  purposes  as  White  Oak  except  for  tight  cooperage  and  cabinet  work,  because  it 
checks  very  badly.  Weighs  53.63  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Yellow  Oak,  also  known  as  Chinquapin  Oak, 
can  be  distinguished  from  the  Chestnut  Oak  by  its  usually  sessile  and  smaller  acorns,  smaller 
buds,  more  acuminate  leaves,  and  flaky  gray  bark.  It  can  also  be  distinguished  from  the 
Dwarf  Chinquapin  Oak  by  its  larger  size,  sharp-pointed  buds,  larger  and  sharper-pointed  leaves, 
and  the  absence  of  gray  blotches  on  the  bark  of  the  young  trunks. 

RANGE — Vermont  to  Minnesota,    south  to  Florida  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Rare.  Found  locally  in  the  southeastern  and  south- 
ern parts.  It  frequents  the  valleys  more  than  the  Chestnut  Oak. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  on  dry  ridges,  especially  upon  limestone  soil. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  wood  of  this  species  is  not  equal  to  that  of  the  White 
Oak  and  in  addition  it  grows  slower.  In  all  localities  where  both  grow  the  White  Oak  should  be 
favored,  while  in  localities  where  the  White  Oak  is  absent  this  Oak  might  be  propagated.  It 
is  a  beautiful  tree  and  should  be  planted  extensively  in  parks  and  lawns  on  account  of  its  hand- 
some form  and  attractive  foliage. 


PLATE  LIX.     YELLOW  OAK. 

1.  Flowering  branch  with  immature  leaves,    (s)    staminate  blossoms,    (p)    pistillate   blossoms,    x 
2.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  and  mature  acorns,   x  J. 
25.  An   acorn,    x   J. 

4.  An  acorn  cup,  x  5. 

5.  Terminal  section  of  winter  twig,   x  J. 

•6.  Section   of   winter   twig   showing   buds     lenticels.    and    leaf-scars    with    bundle-scars,    enlarged. 


PLATE   LX.     CHESTNUT   OAK. 

1.  Flowering  brarch  with  immature  leaves,    (s)   staminate  blossoms,    (p)    pistillate  blossoms,    x  i.. 

2.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  and  mature  acorns,   x  J. 

3.  An  acorn  cup,   x  J. 

4.  An  acorn,  x  I. 

5.  A  winter  twig  showing  buds,    lenticels,   leaf-scars,    fluted  bark,    and  pentangular  pith,    x  i. 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,   enlarged. 

7.  Cross  section  of  a  twig  showing  pentangular  pith,   wood  with  conspicuous  medullary  rays,   inner- 

and  outer  bark,   enlarged. 

8.  A  basal  bud-scale  with  hairy  margin,   enlarged. 

9.  An   apical  bud-scale   with   hairy   margin,    enlarged. 


137 


CHESTNUT  OAK. 
Quercus  Prinus,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — A  medium-sized  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  60-70  ft.,  occasionally  100  ft.,  with  a 
diameter  6-7  feet.  In  dense  stands  the  trunk  Is  straight  and  continuous  while  in  open  stands  It 
Is  low  and  divided,  forming  a  very  broad  open  crown. 

BARK — On  young  stems  and  smaller  branches  smooth,  thin,  yellowish-brown.  On  older 
branches  and  trunk  rough,  thick,  brown  to  black,  rich  in  tannin,  divided  into  long,  broad  and 
continuous  fissures.  Ridges  are  very  solid,  sharp-angled,  not  scaly.  Base  of  the  fissures  often 
cinnainon-ied,  especially  on  the  larger  branches  and  smaller  trunks.  See  Fig.  75. 

TWIGS — First  summer  greenish-purple;  first  winter  orange  or  reddish -brown;  stout,  smooth; 
bitter;  with  inconspicuous  lenticels  and  star-shaped  pith. 

BUDS — Alternate,  ovate-ccnical,  distinctly  sharp-pointed,  H  of  an  inch  long.  Bud-scales  light 
chestnut-brown,  imbricated,  slightly  hairy  towards  apex  and  along  margin. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  obovate,  thick,  stiff,  5-9  inches  long,  2-4  Inches  wide,  usually 
wedge-shaped  at  base,  coarsely  dentate  with  rounded  teeth  on  margin;  green  and  smooth  on  upper 
leaf-surface,  pale  green  and  at  first  hairy  on  lower. 

LEAF-SCARS— See  "Leaf  Scars"  under  White  Oak,  page  132. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  about  i  developed.  Staminate  flowers  are 
yellow  and  borne  in  hairy  aments  2-3  inches  long.  Pistillate  flowers  have  a  short  divergent,  red- 
dish style,  and  occur  in  small  groups  upon  stout  stalks. 

FRUIT — Solitary  or  in  pairs;  matures  in  one  season  on  short  stalks.  Nut  4/5-1  i  inches  long, 
2-3  times  as  long  as  broad,  smooth,  glossy,  oval,  chestnut-brown,  acute  or  round-pointed,  and 
contains  a  sweet  kernel.  Cup  thin,  deep,  hemispheric,  covers  J  of  nut,  hairy  inside.  Scales  of 
cup  are  thjn-tipped,  reddish-brown,  rather  knobby  near  the  base. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  prominent  medullary  rays;  heavy,  strong,  close-grained,  durable  in 
contact  with  soil,  dark  brown  with  lighter  sapwood.  Weighs  46.73  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used 
for  railroad  ties,  fencing,  fuel  and  construction.  Ranks  close  to  White  Oak. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — In  summer  the  Chestnut  Oak,  also  known  as  Rock 
Oak,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  oblong  leaves  margined  with  course  rounded  teeth  and  the 
roughly  fissured  and  non-scaly  bark.  In  winter  one  can  readily  recognize  it  by  its  characteristic 
bark,  its  sharp-pointed  conical  buds  and  its  distinctive  fruit.  The  persistent  leaves  often  aid  in 
recognizing  it  in  winter,  as  well  as  the  absence  of  1-year  old  developing  acorns.  The  slender, 
angular,  orange-brown  twigs  terminated  by  a  cluster  of  light  brown  sharp-pointed  buds  with  a 
slight  apical  pubescence  will  always  determine  this  species  with  certainty. 

RANGE — Maine  to  Ontario,   south  to  Alabama  and  Tennessee. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Common  In  the  mountainous  region  of  the  State. 
Locally  it  becomes  a  prevailing  tree. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  on  dry  hillsides  and  towards  the  south  in  the  mountains.  It  reaches 
its  best  development  in  the  mountains  of  western  North  Carolina,  eastern  Tennessee  and  Ken- 
tucky upon  rich  moist  soil.  It  is  light-demanding  and  unless  crowded  will  develop  often  into  a 
crooked  tree. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Chestnut  Oak  belongs  to  the  White  Oak  group.  Its 
wood  is  used  practically  for  the  same  purposes  as  that  of  the  White  Oak.  The  wood  is  valuable 
and  in  addition  the  bark  is  very  valuable  because  it  is  richer  in  tannin  than  that  of  any  other 
Oak.  Large  quantities  of  this  bark  are  harvested  annually  at  the  present  time  in  the  southern 
Appalachians.  This  species  deserves  to  be  regenerated  extensively,  especially  by  natural  seed 
regeneration  methods  and  admixed  with  the  well  known  Chestnut.  In  case  of  artificial  regenera- 
tion it  may  be  advisable  to  sow  the  seeds  rather  than  plant  seedlings  since  this  species  is  rather 
sensitive  to  transplanting. 


138 


SCRUB  CHESTNUT  OAK. 

Quercus  prinoides,  Willdenow. 

FORM — Usually  a  low  shrub  from  2-5  ft.  high,  but  may  attain  a  height  of  18  ft.  with  a 
diameter  of  4  inches.  Usually  occurs  in  clumps  but  may  occur  solitary. 

BARK — Thin,  bitter,  light  brown,  marked  with  light  gray  blotches,  at  first  smooth,  but  later 
when  trunk  reaches  a  diameter  of  4  inches  it  becomes  rough. 

TWIGS — Smooth,  slender,  at  first  dark  green  and  rusty-pubescent  but  later  reddish-brown  and 
smooth,  marked  with  rather  inconspicuous  pale  lentlcels. 

BUDS — Alternate,  ovate,  rounded  at  apex,  light  brown,  covered  with  thin  overlapping  scales 
which  are  sometimes  hairy  on  margin. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  obovate,  3-6  inches  long,  2-3  inches  wide,  covered  beneath  with 
pale  tomf-ntum,  short  and  stout-petioled,  margined  with  '3-7  rounded  teeth  on  each  margin  and 
terminated  with  acute  or  acuminate  apex. 

LEAF-SCARS — See  "Leaf -Scars"  under  White  Oak,  page  132. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  about  i  developed.  Staminate  aments  li-2$ 
inches  long,  yellow  and  somewhat  hairy.  Pistillate  flowers  short-stalked  and  bear  bright  red 
pistils. 

FRUIT — An  acorn,  maturing  at  end  of  first  season;  $-5  of  an  inch  long,  sessile  or  short- 
stalked,  often  produced  in  great  abundance,  singly  or  in  pairs.  Nut  oval,  light  chestnut-brown; 
when  young  striated  with  dark  longitudinal  lines;  blunt-pointed,  shiny  except  at  apex  where  it 
is  often  covered  with  pale  down.  Kernel  sweet  and  edible.  Cup  thin,  rather  deep,  covers  about 
5  of  nut,  pale  woolly  outside,  downy  inside.  Scales  are  indistinct,  thinner  towards  apex,  often 
knobby  or  tumid  towards  base. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  consipcuous  medullary  rays.  Commercially  not  important  on  account 
of  small  size.  Locally  used  for  fuel. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Scrub  Chestnut  Oak,  also  known  as  Dwarf  Chin- 
quapin Oak,  Chinquapin  Oak  and  Scrub  Oak,  can  readily  be  distinguished  from  most  of  the  Oaks 
of  Pennsylvania  by  its  dwarf  forms.  It  resembles  the  Bear  Scrub  Oak  rather  closely  but  can 
be  distinguished  from  it  by  its  round-lobed  leaves,  knobby  acorn-scales,  scaly  and  often  gray- 
blotched  bark  on  larger  stems,  and  sweet  kernel  of  the  acorns.  The  young  branches  of  this 
species  are  pubescent  while  those  of  the  Scrub  Oak  are  usually  smooth.  The  buds  are  small  and 
not  so  sharp-pointed  as  those  of  the  Chestnut  Oak  and  the  Yellow  Oak. 

RANGE — Maine  to  North  Carolina,   west  to  Kansas  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Found  locally  in  the  eastern,  southern  and  central  part* 
of  the  State,  nowhere  very  common. 

HABITAT — Prefers  dry  woods,  rocky  slopes  or  sandy  soils.  Occasionally  found  in  hillside 
pastures  and  moist  woods. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Scrub  Chestnut  Oak  is  so  small  in  size  that  it  hag 
practically  no  commercial  value.  It  is  hardly  more  than  a  forest  weed  and  should  not  be  planted 
or  protected  except  where  it  might  be  used  as  an  advance  growth. 


PLATE  LXI.     SCRUB  CHESTNUT  OAK. 

1.  Flowering   branch   with    immature   leaves,    x    1. 

2.  A  staminate  flower,  enlarged. 

3.  A   pistillate  flower,    enlarged. 

4.  A    fruiting   branch,    x    I. 

5.  An   acorn   cup,    x   5. 

6.  An  acorn,  x  J. 

7.  A  winter  twig,  x  1. 

8.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,    enlarged. 


PLATE  LXII.     RED  OAK. 

1.  Flowering    branch    with    immature    leaves,     (s)    staminate    blossoms,     (p)     pistillate    blossoms, 

(i)    immature  acorns,   x  |. 

2.  A  staminate  flower,   enlarged. 

3.  A  pistillate  flower,  enlarged. 

4.  Branch   with   mature   leaves,    (i)    immature   acorns,    'm)    mature   acorns,    x    i. 
6.  Winter   twig  with   immature   acorns,    buds,    and   leaf -scars,    x   I. 

6.  An  immature  acorn,   enlarged. 

7.  An  acorn  cup,  x  }. 

8.  An    acorn,    £   j. 

9.  Section  of  a  twig,    enlarged. 
10.  A  bud-scale,   enlarged. 


139 


RED  OAK. 

Quercus  rubra,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — One  of  the  largest  forest  trees  of  the  Northern  States,  usually  attaining  a  height 
of  70-90  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2-4  ft.  but  occasionally  reaching  a  height  of  150  ft.  with  a 
diameter  of  5  feet.  When  grown  in  the  open  has  a  short  trunk  and  a  broad  symmetrical  crown;  in 
dense  forest  stands  the  trunk  is  straight,  clean  and  continuous  bearing  a  small,  narrow  crown. 
The  straight  ascending  and  clean  branches  of  the  crown  are  characteristic. 

BARK — On  young  stems  and  branches  smooth,  gray  to  brown;  on  older  trunks  it  Is  thick, 
slowly  broken  up  by  shallow  fissures  into  regular,  continuous,  dark-brown  and  distinctly  flat- 
topped  ridges.  Trunks  above  S  ft.  in  diameter  are  often  very  rough  near  the  base,  having 
lost  the  characteristic  flat-topped  ridges  which  are,  however,  retained  higher  up  on  the 
stem.  See  Pig.  72. 

TWIGS— Rather  slender,  smooth,  greenish-brown  to  dark  brown,  covered  with  pale  indistinct 
lenticels;  pith  star-shaped. 

BUDS — Alternate,  ovoid,  1/6-1/3  of  an  inch  long,  widest  part  near  middle,  narrowed  up- 
ward to  a  sharp  point,  light  brown,  and  free  from  woolly  covering.  Bud-scales  numerous, 
overlapping,  light  brown,  slightly  longitudinally-striate,  with  slightly  pubescent  margins. 

LEAVES— Alternate,  simple  oval  to  obovate  in  outline,  5-9  inches  long,  4-6  inches  wide, 
7-9-lobed,  with  sinuses  extending  half-way  to  the  midrib  and  separating  ascending  lobes  with 
entire  margin  or  few  bristle-pointed  teeth.  Mature  leaves  firm,  dull  green,  with  yellowish  to 
reddish  midrib  above  and  pale  with  a  yellowish  midrib  below. 

LEAF-SCARS— See  "Leaf -Scars"  under  White  Oak,  page  132. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  about  J  developed.  Staminate  borne  in 
slender,  hairy  aments  4-5  inches  long,  with  greenish  4-5-lobed  calyx  and  4-5  stamens  terminated 
by  yellow  anthers.  Pistillate  borne  on  short  stalks;  involucral  scales  broadly  ovate,  blunt, 
pubescent;  calyx  lobes  sharp-pointed;  style  spreading  recurved,  light  green. 

FRUIT — An  acorn,  maturing  at  the  end  of  second  season,  solitary  or  paired,  short-stalked. 
Nut  ovoid,  i-li  inches  long,  flat  at  base,  narrowed  at  apex.  Oup  velvety  inside,  broad, 
shallow,  covering  only  base  of  nut,  with  closely  imbricated,  sometimes  hairy,  reddish-brown 
scales.  Immature  acorns  usually  divergent  from  twig,  with  basal  scales  reaching  about 
I  of  the  way  up, and  appearing  as  if  arranged  in  3  rows. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  conspicuous  medullary  rays;  heavy,  strong,  hard,  close-grained, 
light  reddish-brown,  with  thin  lighter  colored  sapwood.  Used  for  furniture,  cooperage,  con- 
struction, interior  finish  of  houses,  and  railroad  ties.  Weighs  41.25  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 
The  wood  of  this  species  as  well  as  that  of  the  Black  Oak  and  Scarlet  Oak  is  relatively  poor 
but  is  coming  more  into  use  daily.  The  despised  species  of  to-day  may  be  prized  to-morrow. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Red  Oak  may  be  recognized  by  its  flat-topped 
ridges  of  the  bark,  its  straight  clean  branches,  its  large  dull  green  leaves  with  red  midribs 
and  ascending  lobes  with  entire  or  few  bristle-teeth,  its  light  reddish  inner  bark,  its  glabrous, 
sharp-pointed,  light  brown  buds  which  are  often  constricted  at  the  base,  and  its  large  acorns 
with  broad  and  shallow  cups. 

RANGE — Nova  Scotia  to  Minnesota  and  Kansas,  south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  Planted 
extensively  in  Europe  for  ornamental  and  forestry  purposes. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  throughout  the  State.  At  Its  optimum  In  the 
Cumberland  Valley  and  adjoining  lower  slopes.  Rarer  in  the  northern  than  in  other  parts. 

HABITAT — Prefers  porous  sandy  or  gravelly  clay  soil.  It  will  not  grow  In  wet  soils  and 
is  also  intolerant  of  shade,  except  when  young. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Red  Oak  is  the  most  rapid  growing  species  of  all 
the  Oaks.  In  one  year  it  has  grown  to  the  height  of  19  inches,  in  10  years  18  feet,  20  years 
33-89  feet,  50  years  50-57  feet.  It  deserves  to  be  planted  and  regenerated  naturally  on  an 
extensive  scale.  In  a  single  small  nursery  the  Pennsylvania  Department  of  Forestry  in  1911 
raised  over  200,000  seedlings  of  this  species.  In  Germany  it  has  at  present  a  wider  distri- 
bution than  any  other  American  hardwood  species.  It  is  very  attractive  ornamentally  on 
account  of  its  smooth  bark,  straight  branches,  and  the  form  and  autumnal  coloration  of  its 
leaves. 


140 


PIN  OAK. 

Quercus  palustris,  Muench. 

FORM — A  medium-sized  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  50-60  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2  ft., 
but  may  reach  a  maximum  height  of  120  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  feet.  Trunk  straight,  usually 
clean,  continuous,  and  bears  a  symmetrical  conic  crown.  The  lower  lateral  branches  are 
short  and  drooping,  the  middle  horizontal,  and  the  upper  ascending.  The  form  of  the  tree 
is  characteristic.  See  Pigs  38  and  39. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  relatively  smooth  but  slightly  roughened  by  shallow  fissures  separating 
low  ridges  which  are  covered  by  small  close  scales.  On  young  trunks  shining,  very  smooth,  light 
brown  to  i  eddish.  See  Fig.  76. 

TWIGS — Slender,  tough,  lustrous,  at  first  hairy,  later  smooth,  dark  red  to  grayish-brown, 
covered  with  pale  and  Inconspicuous  lenticels. 

BUDS — Alternate,  smooth,  J  of  an  irfch  long,  small,  ovoid,  sharp-pointed,  covered  with 
light  brown  scales  which  may  sometimes  be  slightly  hairy  on  the  margin. 

LEAVES — Alternate,    simple,    4-0    inches    long,    2-4    inches    wide,  ovate    in    outline,    5-9-lobed; 

lobes    bristle-pointed,     separated    by    broad    deep    and    round-based  sinuses.      When    full    grown 

dark    shining    green    above,    pale    green    and    smooth    below,    often  with    small    tufts    of    hairs 
in   the  leaf  axis. 

LEAF-SCARS — See  "Leaf -Scars"  under  White  Oak,  page  132. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  about  i  developed.  Staminate  flowers 
in  slender  and  hairy  aments  from  2-3  inches  long.  Pistillate  short-stalked  and  terminated 
by  spreading  bright  red  styles. 

FRUIT — An  acorn,  maturing  at  the  end  of  the  second  season,  solitary  or  in  pairs.  Nut 
globose,  light  brown,  often  striped,  about  I  of  an  inch  long.  Cup  thin,  saucer-shaped,  shallow, 
i  of  an  inch  across,  encloses  only  about  2/5  of  nut,  covered  with  thin  closely  overlapping 
scales.  Kernel  bitter  and  pale  yellow. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  conspicuous  medullary  rays;  heavy,  strong,  hard,  close-grained, 
checks  and  warps  badly  during  seasoning.  Weighs  43.24  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for 
cheap  construction,  cheap  cooperage,  railroad  ties,  and  occasionally  for  interior  finish. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Pin  Oak,  also  known  as  the  Swamp  Oak  and 
Water  Oak,  when  young  and  especially  when  open  grown,  can  readily  be  recognized  by  its 
characteristic  form.  Its  trunk  is  continuous,  relatively  smooth,  and  covered  by  many  slender 
and  rather  short  lateral  branches  which  are  drooping  below,  erect  above,  and  horizontal 
in  the  middle.  It  frequents  moist  locations  and  bears  small  acorns  with  shallow  cups.  The 
branchlets  are  often  beset  with  short,  stiff  lateral  shoots  which  give  it  its  common  name. 
The  buds  are  small,  smooth,  sharp-pointed,  and  light  brown  in  color. 

RANGE — From  Massachusetts  to  Michigan  and  Missouri,  south  to  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and 
Oklahoma. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Common  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts.  Occa- 
sional in  the  mountainous  parts.  Sparse  in  the  western  part. 

HABITAT — It  occurs  in  rich  moist  soil  of  river  bottomlands,  along  streams,  on  border  of 
swamps,  and  even  thrives  in  fertile  soil  on  the  slopes  and  summits  of  the  Allegheny  mountains. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  does  not  rank  high  from  a  commercial 
point  of  view  even,  among  the  Black  Oak  group  of  which  it  Is  a  member.  It  is  singularly 
beautiful  for  ornamental  purposes.  It  deserves  to  be  planted  extensively  as  a  shade,  park, 
or  avenue  tree  on  account  of  its  rapid  growth,  its  beautiful  form,  and  autumnal  foliage,  and  the 
ease  with  which  it  is  transplanted.  Its  commercial  value,  however,  does  not  recommend  It  for 
extensive  planting  for  forestry  purposes. 


PLATE  LXIII.     PIN  OAK. 


1.  Flowering    branch    with    immature    leaves,     (s)    staminate    blossoms,     (p)     pistillate    blossoms, 

(i)   immature  acorns,   x  5. 

2.  Branch  with  mature  leaves,    immature  and  mature  acorns,    x  J. 

3.  An  acorn  cup,  x  i. 

4.  An  acorn,    x   J. 

5.  Winter  twig  with  immature  acorns,    buds,   and  one  pin-like   branchlet,   x  5. 

6.  Winter  branch    with   two   pin-like  branchlets,    x   J. 

7.  Section  of  a  winter  branch,   enlarged. 


PLATE  LXIV.     SCARLET  OAK. 

1.  Flowering    branch    with    immature    leaves,     (s)    staminate    blossoms,     (p)     pistillate    blossoms, 

(i)   immature  acorns,   x  J. 

Branch  with  mature  leaves,    immature  and  mature  acorns,    x  1. 
An  acorn,    x  1. 
An  acorn  cup,   x  J. 

Terminal  section  of  a  winter  twig,  x  5. 
Section   of    a   winter    twig    showing    lenticels,    leaf -scars    with    bundle-scars,    and    two    slightly 

angular  buds  covered  with  numerous  over-lapping  scales,   enlarged. 
An   apical  bud-scale   with   ciliate   margin,    enlarged. 
A  basal  bud-scale,   enlarged. 


141 


SCARLET  OAK. 

Quercus  coccinea,  Muench. 

FORM — An  average-sized  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  60-80  ft.,  but  occasionally 
reaching  a  height  of  150  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4  feet.  Lateral  branches  ascending  above, 
horizontal  in  middle,  drooping  below.  Lateral  branches  are  slender  and  lower  ones  die  readily 
from  shading,  only  persist  for  many  years.  Trunk  very  tapering,  crown  shallow  and  narrow. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  intermediate  between  the  Red  Oak  and  the  Black  Oak.  It  is  broken 
up  into  rough,  irregular,  deep  fissures  which  separate  ridges  not  so  rough  as  those  of  the 
Black  Oak  and  not  so  flat-topped  as  those  of  the  Red  Oak.  Inner  bark  red  to  gray.  On  younger 
limbs  thin,  smooth,  light  brown.  See  Fig.  78. 

TWIGS — Slender,  smooth,  reddish  or  grayish-brown,  covered  with  numerous,  small,  tale 
lenticels;  pith  star-shaped. 

BUDS — Alternate,  broadly  ovate,  narrowed  to  a  blunt  apex,  J-i  of  an  inch  long,  dark 
reddish-brown,  covered  with  a  pale  wool  from  the  middle  to  the  apex. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  broadly  oval  to  obovate,  3-6  inches  long,  25-5  inches  wide, 
5-9-lobed,  lobes  bristle-pointed  and  separated  by  deep  round-based  sinuses  extending  at  least 
§  of  the  distance  to  the  midrib.  In  autumn  brilliantly  scarlet  before  falling. 

LEAF-SCARS— See  "Leaf -Scars"  under  White  Oak,  page  132. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  i  developed.  Staminate  flowers  are  borne 
in  slender  pubescent  aments  3-4  inches  long.  Pistillate  on  short  pubescent  stalks,  reddish 
in  color,  with  reflexed  bright  red  stigmas. 

FRTTIT — An  acorn,  maturing  at  the  end  of  the  second  season,  sessile  or  short-stalked, 
solitary  or  paired.  Nut  ovoid,  2/5-4/5  of  an  inch  long,  reddish-brown,  occasionally  striate. 
Cup  thin,  covering  about  5  of  the  nut,  narrowed  at  base,  with  closely  imbricated,  sharp- 
pointed,  slightly  downy  scales  often  forming  a  fringe  at  the  cup  margin  which  is  closely 
appressed  to  the  nut. 

WOOD — Ring -porous;  with  prominent  medullary  rays;  strong,  heavy,  coarse  in  texture. 
Weighs  46.15  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  The  wood  has  little  commercial  value  as  timber. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Scarlet  Oak  Is  one  of  the  commonest  of  the 
Black  Oak  group  and  can  readily  be  distinguished  from  the  Black  Oak  by  its  smoother  bark 
ridges  on  the  trunk,  its  paler  inner  bark,  its  deeper  round-based  leaf-sinuses,  its  smooth, 
close-fitting  scales  of  the  acorn-cup,  and  its  stouter,  often  smaller,  less  angular  buds  which 
are  covered  with  pale  wool,  only  from  the  middle  to  the  apex  while  the  Black  Oak  is  dis- 
tinctly woolly  over  the  entire  bud.  It  can  be  distinguished  from  the  Red  Oak  by  its  smaller 
and  more  deeply  lobed  leaves,  its  less  flat-topped  ridges  of  the  bark,  its  smaller  and  deeper- 
cupped  acorns,  and  its  buds  which  are  covered  with,  a  pale  wool  from  the  middle  to  the 
apex  while  those  of  the  Red  Oak  are  free  from  wool.  The  persistent,  stunted,  often  drooping 
and  dead  lateral  branches  are  also  peculiar  to  this  tree.  This .  characteristic  is  common  to 
trees  on  the  border  of  bodies  of  water. 

RANGE — Maine  to  Minnesota,  south  to  North  Carolina  and  Nebraska. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Common  in  the  eastern,  central,  and  southern  parts. 
Sparse  in  western  part.  Rare  in  northern  part. 

HABITAT — Prefers   dry  sandy  soil.     Frequently    met   upon   light   stony   or   sandy   uplands   but 
-the    best   individuals   occur   on   good    soil   at    the   base   of    the   slopes   where    it   is   often   found 
bordering   hollows   filled  wi.th  water   during   spring. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  wood  of  the  Scarlet  Oak  is  of  little  commercial 
importance  as  compared  with  some  of  the  other  oaks.  The  wood  is  sold  on  the  market 
as  Red  Oak  but  is  inferior  in  quality  to  the  latter.  This  species  is  often  attacked  by  fungi  when 
it  has  reached  medium  size,  which  causes  the  wood  to  rot  and  often  results  in  wind-break  in 
the  forest.  This  species  on  account  of  its  fast  growth,  beautiful  foliage  with  its  special 
autumnal  coloration,  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  trees  for  street  or  park. 


142 


BLACK  OAK. 

Quercus  velutina,  Lambert. 

FORM — One  of  the  largest  Oaks  of  Pennsylvania  usually  60-80  ft.  high,  but  may  attain  a 
maximum  height  of  150  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4J  feet.  Trunk  usually  clean  and  continuous 
giving  off  ascending  branches  above  and  horizontal  ones  below.  Branches  rather  stout  and 
zigzag.  Crown  deep,  irregular,  narrow  to  wide-spreading,  oblong  in  outline. 

BARK — On  young  stems  smooth  and  dark  brown,  but  soon  becoming  rough  and  black. 
On  old  trunks  very  rough,  thick,  broken  into  deep  fissures  separating  thick  ridges  which  are 
cross-fissured.  Young  trees  2-4  inches  in  diameter  often  start  to  develop  rough  bark.  Inner 
bark  is  yellow  and  bitter,  a  good  distinguishing  characteristic.  See  Fig.  74. 

TWIGS — Stout,  rusty-pubescent,  reddish-brown,  angular,  longitudinally  ridged  from  leaf- 
scars;  taste  bitter;  covered  by  rather  conspicuous  pale  lenticels. 

BUDS— Alternate,  ovate,  large,  J-*  of  an  inch  long,  strongly  angled,  tapering  to  obtuse  apex, 
covered  with  numerous  overlapping  bud-scales  with  a  coating  of  yellowish  to  dirty-white 
pubescence. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  obovate  to  oblong,  4-6  inches  long,  3-4  inches  wide,  usually  7- 
lobed  terminated  by  bristle  points.  Mature  leaves  are  dark  green  and  smooth  above  and  pale 
to  yellowish-green  below  with  tufts  of  rusty  hairs  in  axil  of  veins  at  midrib.  The  leaves 
vary  from  those  of  the  Red  Oak.  No  other  Oak  produces  so  many  differently  shaped  leaves 
on  the  same  tree. 

LEAF-SCARS — See  "Leaf -Scars"  under  White  Oak,  page  132. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  J  developed.  Staminate  flowers  occur 
in  hairy  aments  4-6  inches  long.  Pistillate  are  borne  on  short  hairy  stalks. 

FRUIT — An  acorn,  maturing  during  two  seasons,  sessile  or  stalked,  solitary  or  clustered. 
Nut  ovate  to  oval,  i-1  inch  long,  light  reddish-brown,  often  coated  with  pubescence  and 
longitudinally  striate.  Cup  thin,  tapering  at  base,  dark  reddish-brown,  embracing  \  nut,  covered 
with  thin,  light  brown,  sharp-pointed,  hairy  scales  tightly  overlapping  at  base  and  loosely 
overlapping  at  margin  so  as  to  form  a  fringe-like  margin  to  the  cup. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  conspicuous  medullary  rays;  hard,  heavy,  strong,  not  tough, 
durable,  checks  readily.  Heartwood  is  light  brown,  with  lighter-colored  sapwood.  Weighs 
43.90  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  furniture,  interior  finish,  cheap  cooperage,  and  ordinary 
construction.  In  general  it  finds  the  same  uses  as  Red  Oak. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Black  Oak  is  also  known  as  Yellow  Oak 
and  Quercitron  on  account  of  its  yellow  inner  bark.  The  dark  colored  and  rough  outer  bark, 
even  on  young  stems,  and  the  yellow  Inner  bark  are  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  definite 
marks  of  identification.  The  leaves,  which  vary  from  the  shallow  lobed  ones  similar  to 
those  of  the  Red  Oak  to  the  deep  lobed  ones  similar  to  those  of  the  Scarlet  Oak,  may  also 
help  to  identify  the  species.  No  other  species  of  Oak  has  so  many  varieties  of  leaves 
on  the  same  tree  as  the  Black  Oak.  In  autumn  the  small  acorns  with  the  cup  embracing 
one-half  of  the  nut  may  also  help  to  distinguish  it  from  some  species  like  the  Red  Oak 
and  the  Pin  Oak.  The  large,  angular  buds  covered  over  the  whole  surface  with  a  pale 
wool  are  sure  characteristics. 

RANGE — Maine  to  Western  Ontario,    south   to   Florida   and   Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Common  in  the  eastern,  central,  and  southern  parts. 
Sparse  in  western  part.  Rare  in  the  northern  part. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  on  dry  uplands,  gravelly  plains  and  ridges,  especially  In  the 
Appalachian  foothills.  Seldom  found  in  rich  bottomlands.  In  the  west  usually  found  on 
sterile,  sandy,  or  glaciated  hills. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Black  Oak  should  be  propagated  only  where  no 
better  trees  can  be  grown.  If  its  reproduction  is  thought  desirable  it  should  be  attempted 
by  natural  seed  regeneration  or  planting  of  seeds  since  planting  of  young  seedlings  from  the 
nursery  is  expensive  and  success  doubtful.  Formerly  the  yellow  inner  bark  was  in  demand 
because  an  extract  in  the  form  of  a  yellow  dye,  known  as  "Quercitron,"  was  obtained 
from  it.  The  introduction  of  aniline  dyes  has  decreased  the  demand.  The  Black  Oak  is  not 
attractive  as  an  ornamental  tree. 


PLATE  LXV.     BLACK  OAK. 

1.  Flowering  branch  with  immature  leaves,    (s)    staminate  blossoms,    (p)    pistillate  blossoms,   x  fc. 

2.  A  mature  leaf,   x  J. 

3.  Branch   with   leaves   and    mature   fruit,    x    1. 

4.  An  acorn  cup,  x  *. 

5.  An   acorn,   x  J. 

6.  Winter  twig  with  buds,   leaf-scars,   and  immature  acorns,   x  i. 

7.  Section  of  twig  with  immature  acorns,   x  1. 

8.  Section  of  winter  twig  showing  the  large,  angular  and  pubescent  bud  and  leaf-scare  with  bundle- 

scars,    enlarged. 


PLATE  LXVI.     SPANISH  OAK. 

1.  Flowering    branch    with    immature    leaves,     (s)     staminate    blossoms,     (p)     pistillate    blossoms, 

(i)    immature  acorns,   x  J. 

2.  Branch  with  mature  leaves,    immature  and  mature  acorns,    x   J. 

3.  An  acorn  cup,  x  i. 

4.  An  acorn,   x  J. 

5.  Winter  twig  with  immature  acorns,    buds,    and   leaf-scars,   x  i. 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  twig  showing  buds,    leaf-scars,    and   bundle-scars,    enlarged. 


143 


SPANISH  OAK. 
Quercus  falcata,  Michaux. 

FORM — A  medium-sized  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  70-80  ft.  with  a  diameter  of 
2-3  ft.  but  which  may  reach  a  maximum  height  of  120  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4J  feet.  Crown 
open,  broad,  round-topped,  rather  deep. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  divided  by  shallow  fissures  which  separate  low,  brown,  scaly  ridges. 
On  young  parts  thin,  smooth,  dark  reddish-brown  to  gray  and  rich  in  tannic  acid. 

TWIGS — Stout,  at  first  covered  with  rusty  hairs,  later  almost  smooth  and  reddish-brown 
to  ashy-gray. 

BUDS — Alternate,    ovoid,    sharp-pointed,    i   of   an    inch   long,    bright    chestnut-brown,    hairy. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  6-7  inches  long,  4-5  Inches  broad,  ovate  in  outline,  3-7  lobed; 
lobes  bristle-pointed  and  separated  by  broad  variable  sinuses.  They  are  dark  green  and  shining 
above,  covered  with  grayish  down  beneath.  The  leaves  are  very  variable  in  outline. 

LEAF-SCARS— See   "Leaf-Scars"  under  White  Oak,    page  132. 

FLOWERS — Flowers  appear  in  April  or  May  when  the  leaves  are  about  $  developed.  Stami- 
nate  flowers  are  borne  in  slender  hairy  aments  about  3-5  inches  long.  Pistillate  on  stout  hairy 
stalks  and  terminated  by  rather  short,  divergent,  dark  red  styles. 

FRUIT — An  acorn,  maturing  at  the  end  of  the  second  season;  short-stalked.  Nut  ovoid  to  glo- 
bose, rounded  at  apex,  about  i  of  an  inch  long,  pale  orange-brown,  enclosed  only  at  base  for 
1  length.  Cup  hemispheric,  J-2  of  an  inch  across,  covered  by  thin  reddish  scales  which  are 
pale  pubescent  especially  on  the  margins. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  conspicuous  medullary  rays;  hard,  strong,  not  durable,  with 
light  red  heartwood,  lighter  sapwood.  It  warps  and  checks  badly.  Weighs  43.17  Ibs.  per  cubic 
foot.  Largely  used  for  fuel  and  also  used  in  construction.  Bark  is  rich  in  tannin. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Spanish  Oak  bears  leaves  which  resemble  those 
of  the  Scrub  Oak,  only  that  the  lobes  of  the  latter  are  usually  short  and  triangular  while  those 
of  the  former  are  mostly  long  and  lanceolate.  The  Scrub  Oak  attains  the  height  of  a  small  tree 
only,  while  the  Spanish  Oak  may  reach  a  height  of  100  feet.  It  can  be  distinguished  from 
the  other  closely  related  members  of  the  Black  Oak  group  in  this  State  by  its  white  or 
grayish-tomentose  coating  on  the  lower  leaf  surface. 

RANGE — New  Jersey  and  southeastern  Pennsylvania  to  Missouri,  south  to  Florida  and 
Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Reported  only  from  the  southeastern  and  southern 
parts  of  the  State. 

HABITAT — It  is  usually  found  on  dry  gravelly  or  sandy  soil.  In  the  South  it  Is  common 
between  the  coastal  plain  and  the  Appalachian  mountains. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — Since  the  natural  distribution  in  this  State  is  limited 
to  a  few  local  places  in  the  southeastern  and  southern  parts  and  on  account  of  its  inferior 
wood,  it  cannot  be  recommended  for  forestry  purposes.  Other  more  valuable  species  should 
be  propogated  in  its  stead.  It  is  rather  attractive  as  an  ornamental  tree  and  its  bark 
also  is  rich  in  tannin. 


144 


SCRUB  OAK. 

Quercus  ilicifolia,  Wangenheim. 

FORM — Shrub  or  small  tree  with  many  crooked  intertwined  branches;  usually  4-8  ft. 
high  with  a  diameter  of  1-3  inches,  but  occasionally  attaining  a  height  of  18-20  feet.  See 
Pig.  4. 

BARK — Thin,  smooth,  becoming  scaly  on  older  stems,  gray  to  dark  brown  in  color. 

TWIGS — When  young  slender,  dark  green,  tinged  with  red,  and  tomentose;  becoming  gray 
to  reddish-brown,  finally  dark  brown  and  smooth. 

BUDS — Alternate,  ovate,  obtuse,  &  of  an  inch  long,  chestnut-brown;  covered  by  numerous 
small  dark-margined  closely  appressed  scales. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  2-5  inches  long,  1J-3  inches  wide,  obovate  in  outline,  with 
a  wedge-shaped  base,  3-7-lobed,  usually  5;  with  shallow  sinuses  and  acute  and  bristle-tipped 
lobes.  Mature  leaves  dark  green  and  glossy  above,  covered  with  a  dense  whitish  pubescence 
beneath,  thick  and  leathery  in  texture,  with  conspicuous  yellow  midribs  and  veins.  Petioles 
round,  tomentose  and  about  1  inch  long. 

LEAF-SCARS— See   "Leaf-Scars"  under  White  Oak,    page  132. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  J  developed.  Staminate  aments  4-5  inches 
long,  often  clinging  to  twigs  until  late  summer.  Pistillate  flowers  borne  upon  stout  tomen- 
tose stalks,  have  an  involucre  ot  red  scales,  and  red  stigmas. 

FRUIT — An  acorn,  maturing  at  end  of  second  season,  very  abundant,  sessile  or  nearly  so, 
usually  clustered,  seldom  solitary.  Nut  broadly  ovoid,  with  a  flat  rounded  base,  acute  or 
rounded  apex,  about  half  enclosed  in  the  cup,  light  brown,  shiny  and  often  slightly  striate, 
1  of  an  inch  broad  and  long.  Cup  pale  and  reddish-brown  and  soft  downy  within,  covered 
on  the  outside  with  many  closely  set  reddish-brown  scales  whose  free  tips  form  a  fringe 
around  the  edge  of  the  cup.  Kernel  bright  yellow. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  conspicuous  medullary  rays;  pale  brown,  strong,  hard,  tough, 
and  fine-grained.  Commercially  not  important  on  account  of  its  small  size.  Locally  used 
for  fuel. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Scrub  Oak,  also  known  as  Bear  Oak  and 
Ground  Oak,  can  easily  be  distinguished  by  characteristic'  bristle-pointed  leaves  shown  on 
the  opposite  plate,  which  turn  reddish-brown  or  brown  in  autumn,  and  often  persist  throughout 
the  winter.  It  is  small  in  size  and  forms  dense  thickets  over  large  areas,  especially  recently 
burned  areas.  The  smooth  non-scaly  bark,  persistent  clusters  of  fruit  and  the  small,  brown, 
bluntly  conical  buds  covered  with  slight  pubescence  are  characteristic.  In  habit  it  resembles 
the  Scrub  Chestnut  Oak,  but  the  latter  has  a  flaky  bark  and  round-lobed  leaves  and 
characteristic  fruit.  • 

RANGE — Maine    to    Ohio    south    to    North    Carolina    and    Kentucky. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Common  in  most  of  the  counties  in  and  east  of  the 
Allegheny  Mountains.  Found  in  some  of  the  counties  in  the  southwestern  portion  of  the  State. 
Sparse  in  the  north-central  and  northern  parts. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  on  rocky  hillsides,  sandy  plateaus,  and  mountain  tops.  It  is 
gregarious  and  able  to  flourish  upon  barren,  dry,  infertile  soils,  but  cannot  -endure  much  shading, 
hence  it  seldom  occurs  in  mixture  with  other  species.  It  has  overgrown  extensive  areaa  of 
burnt-over  land  in  this  State. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Scrub  Oak  is  of  no  commercial  value  but  is  economically 
important  on  account  of  its  ability  to  grow  upon  the  most  exposed  and  inhospitable  situations. 
This  makes  it  worthy  of  consideration  in  protection  forests,  where  it  shelters  the  forest-floor, 
prevents  erosion  and  enriches  the  soil  with  accumulations  of  humus.  In  time  it  is  usually  dis- 
placed by  species  of  greater  commercial  importance  as  Chestnut,  Scarlet  Oak,  Chestnut  Oak, 
Maple,  and  Aspen.  Areas  once  covered  with  thickets  of  this  species  now  often  have  only 
a  few  single  representatives  left.  • 


PLATE  LXVII.     SCRUB  OAK. 

1.  Flowering  branch   with  immature  leaves,    (s)    staminate  blossoms,    (p)    pistillate  blossoms,    x  J. 

2.  Branch  with   mature  leaves,    immature  and   mature  acorns,    x   J. 

3.  Terminal  section  of  a  winter  twig,   x  i. 

4.  Winter  twig  with  an  acorn,   x  1. 

5.  AD   acorn  cup,    x  J. 

6.  An  acorn,   x  5. 

7.  Section   of   a   winter   twig    showing    a   leaf-scar   with    bundle-scars,    lenticels,    and    a    bud    with 

numerous  over-lapping  scales,  enlarged. 


m 


PLATE  LXVIII.  BLACK  JACK  OAK. 

1.  Flowering    branch    with    immature    leaves,     (s)     staminate    blossoms,     (p)     pistillate    blossoms. 

(i)  immature  acorns,  x  i. 

2.  Branch  with  mature  leaves,    immature  and  mature  acorns,   x   i. 

3.  An  acorn  cup,  x  i- 

4.  An  acorn,   x  1. 

5.  Winter  twig  with  immature  acorns,   buds,   and  leaf-scan?,    x  i. 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,  enlarged. 


145 


BLACK  JACK  OAK. 

Quercus  marilandica,  Muench. 


FORM — This  tree  usually  attains  a  height  of  20-30  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  18  incnes,  out  may 
reach  a  height  of  60  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  feet.  It  reaches  its  maximum  size  in  Texas 
and  Arkansas.  Crown  usually  compact,  round-topped,  and  narrow  on  account  of  short  branches. 
Upper  blanches  are  ascending,  lower  ones  spreading. 

BARK — Thick,  roughened  by  deep  fiissures  which  separate  broad  angular  plates  covered  with 
dark  brown  to  nearly  black  scales. 

TWIGS — Stout,  coated  at  first  with  pale  woolly  covering  of  hairs,  later  becoming  smooth 
and  dark  brown  to  gray. 

BUDS — Alternate,  ovate,  distinctly  angular,  sharp-pointed,  J  of  an  inch  long,  reddish-brown 
and  rusty  pubescent. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  broadly  ovate  in  outline,  6-7  inches  long  with  an  almost  equal 
width,  rounded  or  heart-shaped  at  the  base,  3-5-lobed.  Mature  leaves  deep  green,  thick, 
leathery,  and  smooth  above;  often  rusty  brown  below. 

LEAF-SCARS— See   "Leaf-Scars"  under  White  Oak,    page  132. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  the  leaves  are  J  developed.  Staminate  flowers  In 
slender,  often  persistent  aments  2-4  inches  long.  Pistillate  flowers  on  short,  stout,  pubes- 
cent stalks. 

FRUIT — An  acorn,  maturing  at  the  end  of  the  second  season,  solitary  or  paired,  short 
stalked.  Nut  ovoid  1  of  an  inch  long,  nearly  same  width  throughout,  often  striate,  light 
brown.  Cup  hemispheric,  deep,  covers  one-half  or  over  of  nut,  light  brown  and  downy  on 
inside,  covered  by  large  reddish-brown  loosely  overlapping  scales.  Small  scales  form  a  thin 
rim  around  the  margin. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  conspicuous  medullary  rays;  dark  brown,  heavy,  hard,  strong. 
Weighs  45.64  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  fuel,  charcoal,  and  manufactured  into  lumber 
to  a  limited  extent. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Black  Jack  Oak,  also  known  as  Jack  Oak  and 
Barren  Oak,  can  be  distinguished  by  the  large  obovate  leaves  which  are  usually  3-5-lobed  above 
the  middle,  or  sometimes  entire  and  covered  with  rusty  brown  pubescence.  It  is  the  only 
Oak  of  Pennsylvania  which  has  its  leaves  dilated  near  apex.  Its  sharp-pointed,  distinctly 
angular  and  somewhat  hairy  bud  and  its  hemispheric  acorn  cup  also  aid  in  distinguishing 
it  from  -the  other  closely  related  species. 

RANGE — New   York  and   Pennsylvania  west  to  Nebraska  and   south   to   Florida   and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Occasional  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the 
State  and  a  few  local  outposts  in  the  western  part. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  on  poor,  dry,  sterile,  sandy  soil,  but  in  the  South  it  is  also  found 
on  clay.  It  reaches  its  best  development  upon  the  rich  soil  in  the  southern  part  of  its 
distribution. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — In  the  North  it  is  a  shrub  only  or  a  small  tree  of  no 
commercial  importance,  while  in  the  South  it  becomes  somewhat  larger  and  is  used  for  fuel, 
charcoal,  and  lumber.  In  Pennsylvania  it  is  of  no  forestal  importance,  but  is  a  very  attractive 
tree  for  ornamental  purposes  on  account  of  its  compact  and  deep  crown. 


10 


146 


LAUREL  OAK. 

Quercus  imbricaria,  Michaux. 

FORM — A  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  50-GO  ft.  but  may  reach  a  height  of  100  ft.  with 
a  diameter  of  3  feet.  Crown  in  mature  trees  rather  open,  often  shallow,  while  in  younger 
specimens  it  is  pyramidal,  rather  closed,  and  the  lateral  drooping  branches  often  touch  the 
ground. 

BARK — Up  to  11  inches  in  thickness,  roughened  by  shallow  fissures  which  separate  ridges 
covered  by  close  light  brown  scales.  On  younger  stems  thin,  often  smooth  and  shiny. 

TWIGS — Slender,  at  first  dark  green  and  lustrous;  later  light  brown  to  dark  brown. 

BUDS — Alternate,  ovate,  sharp-pointed,  slightly  angular,  1  of  an  inch  long  and  covered 
with  numerous  close-fitting,  overlapping,  erose,  chestnut-brown  scales  with  serrate  margins. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  oblong  to  lanceolate,  4-6  inches  long,  1-2  inches  wide,  wedge-shaped 
or  round  at  the  base,  acute  at  apex,  with  usually  entire  or  undulate  margins.  Mature  leaves 
are  thin,  dark  and  shiny  above;  pale  green  and  hairy  below. 

LEAF-SCARS— See   "Leaf -Scars"  under  White  Oak,    page  132. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  J  developed.  Staminate  flowers  in  hairy 
aments  2-3  inches  long.  Pistillate  on  short  stalks  above  staminate. 

FRUIT — An  acorn,  maturing  at  the  end  of  the  second  season,  solitary  or  in  pairs,  stalked. 
Nut  ovoid  i-i  of  an  inch  long,  dark  brown.  Cup  embraces  almost  i  of  nut,  saucer-shaped, 
brown  and  shining  inside,  covered  by  numerous,  closely  overlapping,  reddish-brown,  hairy 
scales. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  conspicuous  medullary  rays;  hard,  coarse-grained,  reddish-brown. 
It  checks  easily  and  consequently  finds  a  limited  use  in  construction  work.  Weighs  46.92 
Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  fuel,  charcoal,  shingles,  and  manufactured  into  lumber. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Laurel  Oak,  also  known  as  Shingle  Oak,  Jack 
Oak,  and  Water  Oak,  may  readily  be  distinguished  from  all  the  other  Oaks  of  Pennsylvania 
except  the  Willow  Oak,  by  its  characteristic  leaf.  The  Willow  Oak  is  smaller,  has  narrower  and 
sharper-pointed  leaves  which  are  not  hairy  beneath.  The  leaves  of  this  species  are  hairy 
beneath.  The  acorns  are  larger  and  the  cups  not  so  flat  as  those  of  the  Willow  Oak.  The 
winter  buds  of  the  Laurel  Oak  are  light  chestnut-brown  and  somewhat  angular,  while  those  of 
the  Willow  Oak  are  dark  chestnut-brown. 

RANGE — Pennsylvania  to  Michigan  and  Nebraska,   south  to  Georgia  and  Arkansas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA-Found  locally  west  of  the  Alleghenies.  Occurs  in  Lehigh, 
Huntingdon,  Bedford,  Westmoreland,  Greene,  Clarion,  Indiana,  Butler,  Washington,  Mercer, 
Lawrence,  Clearfleld,  Beaver,  and  Allegheny  counties. 

HABITAT — It  occurs  in  rich  bottomlands,  often  near  streams,  and  also  in  rather  moist 
fertile  uplands. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — It  reaches  dimensions  so  that  it  can  produce  lumber  of 
commercial  size  and  quantity,  but  other  superior  species  will  grow  in  the  same  place  and 
consequently  it  cannot  be  recommended  for  forestry  purposes.  It  is,  however,  one  of  the  most 
attractive  ornamental  oaks  and  deserves  to  be  planted  extensively  for  such  purposes. 


PLATE  LXIX.     LAUREL  OAK. 

1.  Flowering    branch    with    immature    leaves,     (s)     staminate    blossoms,     (p)     pistillate    blossoms. 

(i)    immature  acorns,   x  J. 

2.  Branch  with   mature  leaves,    immature  and  mature  acorns,    x  J. 

3.  An  acorn  cup,   x  J. 

4.  An   acorn,    x   J. 

5.  Winter  twig  with  buds,    lenticels,    pentangular  pith,    and   immature   acorns,    x    4. 

6.  Section  of  winter  twig,    enlarged. 


PLATE  LXX.     WILLOW  OAK. 


1.  Flowering  branch    with   immature   leaves,    (s) 

staminate  blossoms,    (p)  pistillate  blossoms, 
(1)    immature  acorns,    x  J. 

2.  Branch    with    mature    leaves,    immature    and 

mature   acorns,    x   J. 

3.  An  acorn  cup,   x  5. 

4.  An   acorn,    x   J. 


5.  Winter    twig    with    buds,    lenticels,    and    im- 

mature acorns,   x  J. 

6.  Section    of    winter    twig,    enlarged. 

7.  Cross    section    of    twig    showing    pentangular 

pith,     wood     with     conspicuous     medullary 
rays,    and  bark,    enlarged. 


147 


WILLOW  OAK. 

Quercus  phellos,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — This  tree  usually  attains  a  height  of  50-00  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  li-2  ft.,  but  may 
reach  a  height  of  80  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4  feet.  Crown  usually  narrow,  rather  open, 
pyramidal  and  round-topped. 

BARK — Reddish-brown,    i-2   of  an   inch   thick,    shallowly    fissured   and   scaly. 

TWIGS — Rather  stout,    smooth   and   shining  during  first  winter,    reddish-brown   to  dark  brown. 

BUDS — Alternate,  ovate,  about  i  of  an  inch  long,  strongly  angled,  sharp-pointed,  covered 
by  loosely  overlapping  dark  brown  scales  which  are  slightly  serrated  on  the  margin. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  narrowly  elliptic,  sometimes  lanceolate,  narrowed  at  apex  and  base, 
2-5  inches  long,  J-l  inch  wide,  entire  or  with  slightly  wavy  margins;  terminated  by  a  sharp 
bristle-pointed  apex. 

LEAF-SCARS — See   "Leaf -Scars"   under  White   Oak,    page  132. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  J  developed.  Staminate  flowers  slender, 
hairy,  yellowish,  2-3  inches  long.  Pistillate  flowers  borne  on  smooth  slender  stalks. 

FRUIT — An  acorn,  maturing  at  the  end  of  the  second  season,  usually  solitary,  sessile  or  nearly 
so.  Nut  hemispheric,  J  inch  in  diameter,  pale  yellow-brown,  sometimes  striate.  Cup  saucer- 
shaped,  covers  only  a  small  portion  of  the  base  of  the  nut  and  is  covered  with  close,  thin, 
hairy,  reddish-brown  scales.  Kernel  is  very  bitter  and  yellowish  in  color. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  conspicuous  medullary  rays;  strong,  coarse-grained,  rather  soft 
and  light  brown.  Weighs  46.56  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  fuel  and  to  a  limited  extent 
for  general  construction  and  felloes  in  wagon  wheels. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Willow  Oak,  also  known  as  the  Peach  Oak, 
Water  Oak,  Swamp  Oak,  and  Pin  Oak,  may  readily  be  distinguished  from  all  the  other  oaks 
of  Pennsylvania  except  the  Laurel  Oak  by  its  characteristic  leaf,  which  resembles  the  leaf  of 
a  willow  rather  than  the  typical  oak  leaf.  The  Laurel  Oak  is  the  only  other  oak  which 
bears  a  leaf  that  shows  any  resemblance,  but  its  leaf  is  longer  and  broader,  more  obtuse- 
pointed,  and  hairy  beneath.  The  cups  of  the  acorns  of  this  species  are  flatter  and  the  acorns 
smaller  than  those  of  the  Laurel  Oak.  The  buds  of  this  species  are  dark  chestnut-brown  in 
color,  while  those  of  the  Laurel  Oak  are  light  brown  and  not  angular. 

RANGE — From  New  -York  to  Florida,  westward  to  Kentucky,   Missouri,  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  only  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  State. 
Reported  from  Bucks,  Chester,  Delaware,  Lancaster,  and  Philadelphia  counties. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  on  wet  sandy  soil,  and  occurs  frequently  along  swamps  and 
streams,  but  occasionally  is  found  on  higher  areas  where  it  may  reach  a  fair  size. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— This  species  is  so  limited  in  its  natural  distribution  in 
this  State  and  its  wood  is  of  so  little  commercial  importance  that  it  cannot  be  considered  of 
forestal  value.  It  should  not  be  planted  for  forestry  purposes  but  deserves  to  be  planted 
ornamentally,  especially  in  parks  and  along  avenues.  It  hybridizes  with  several  species  of  other 
Oaks,  especially  the  Red  Oak,  and  these  hybrids  are  often  very  attractive  ornamentally. 


148 


THE  NETTLE  FAMILY— URTIC ACE AE. 

This  family  contains  a  great  number  of  representatives,  the  ma- 
jority of  which  are  tropical.  It  contains  trees,  shrubs,  and  many 
other  small  plant  forms.  The  trees  and  shrubs'  alone  comprise  over 
1,000  species  and  are  found  in  the  temperate  and  tropical  regions  of 
both  hemispheres.  They  grow  usually  at  relatively  low  altitudes  fre- 
quenting wet  and  swampy  as  well  as  dry  and  arid  habitats. 

Several  representatives  of  this  family  are  important  timber  trees 
while  others  are  of  less  commercial  importance.  Occasionally  they 
may  form  pure  stands  but  usually  are  mixed  with  other  species. 
This  family  also  contains  representatives  which  are  attractive  orna- 
mentally and  used  for  hedges. 

The  leaves  are  simple,  alternate,  and  usually  deciduous.  The  fruit 
matures  in  one  season,  in  some  species  in  spring  shortly  after  the 
blossoms  while  in  others  in  fall.  The  seeds  may  germinate  the  same 
season  or  lie  dormant  over  winter  and  germinate  the  following 
spring.  The  fruit  of  some  genera  is  edible.  It  is  very  variable  in 
form  and  structure.  The  subjoined  key  based  primarily  on  fruit 
will  aid  in  distinguishing  the  genera  of  this  family  native  to  Penn- 
sylvania: 

KEY  TO  THE  GENERA. 

Page. 
1.    Fruit    a    berry;    pith    chambered,    Celtis         152 

1.  Fruit  not   a   berry,    pith   not   chambered,    2 

2,  Fruit    dry,     a    samara,     winged    all    around;     flowers    mostly    polygamous,     sap    not 

milky TTlmus         149 

2.  Fruit  not  dry,   an  acheue,  not  winged;  flowers  unisexual;   sap  milky,    3 

8.    Fruit  elongated,    edible;   leaves   dentate   3-nerved;    branches   unarmed;    both   staminate 

and   pistillate   flowers   in   separate   spikes,    Morns         154 

3.  Fruit  round,   not  edible;  leaves  entire;  branches  armed;  staminate  flowers  in  racemes, 

pistillate    in    heads Madura        153 


THE;  ELMS— ULMUS    (Tourn.)    Linnaeus. 

The  members  of  this  genus  are  usually  trees,  rarely  shrubs.  About 
15  species  are  known  of  which  number  6  species  are  native  to  North 
America  and  2  to  the  State  of  Pennsylvania. 

The  leaves  are  simple,  alternate,  two-ranked,  straight-veined,  and 
unequal-based.  The  flowers  may  appear  before  or  after  the  leaves. 
The  2  species  native  to  this  State  produce  their  flowers  early  in 
spring  before  the  leaves.  The  fruit  of  the  native  species  ripens  in 
spring  shortly  after  the  flowers  have  matured.  It  consists  of  a  flat 
seed  surrounded  by  a  thin  papery  wing. 

The  trees  yield  valuable  wood  and  some  of  them  also  produce  a 
tough  inner  bark  which  is  used  for  food,  in  medicine,  and  manu- 
factured into  ropes  and  coarse  cloth.  The  Elms  are  not  only  val- 
uable commercially  but  also  attractive  ornamentally.  The  native 
American  Elm  and  the  introduced  English  Elm  (Ulmus  campestris 
L.)  are  not  only  beautiful  in  summer  when  covered  with  a  dense 
foliage  but  also  in  winter  when  the  little  twigs  and  branches,  and 
the  massive  trunk  and  limbs  stand  out  against  the  sky.  The  sub- 
joined key  will  aid  in  distinguishing  the  two  native  species  of  Elm 
and  the  commonly  introduced  English  Elm: 

SUMMER  KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES. 

Page. 
1.    Leaves  smooth  above  or  nearly  so;   fruit  ovate  or  oval,   ciliate  on  margin;  flowers  on 

slender    drooping    stalks,     IT.   americana         151 

1.  Leaves  very  rough  above;  fruit  circular,  not  ciliate;  flowers  nearly  sessile .' 2 

2.  Small  to  medium-sized  native  tree;   inner  bark  mucilaginous;   branchlets  and  pedicels 

downy;   fruit  densely  ^  brown-hairy  over  seed TT.   fulva        150 

2.    Large  introduced  tree; 'inner  bark  not  mucilaginous;   branchlets  and  pedicels  smooth; 

fruit   smooth   throughout,    U,    campestris        149 

WINTER  KEY  TO  THE   SPECIES. 

1.    Bud-scales   densely   brown-hairy;    Inner   bark   mucilaginous;    twigs   grayish   and   rough, 

U.    fulva        150 

1.  Bud-scales  not  densely  brown-hairy;   inner  bark   not  mucilaginous;   twigs   not  grayish 

nor  rough,   2 

2.  Buds    chestnut-brown;    bud-scales    with    darker    margin;    bark    ridged;    twigs    without 

corky   ridges;    form  of  the   tree   decidedly   deliquescent,    U. americana         151 

2.    Buds   smoky-brown   to  almost  black;   bud-scales   rather  uniform   in   color;   bark   rather 
firm,    often  roughened  into  oblong  blocks;    form  of  tree  intermediate  with  an   excur- 
rent    tendency,    TJ.    oampestris        149 


150 


SLIPPERY  ELM. 
Ulmus  fulva,  Michaux. 

FORM — A  small  to  a  medium-sized  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  40-60  ft.  with  a 
diameter  of  1-25  ft.,  but  may  reach  a  maximum  height  of  80  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2i  feet. 
Crown  broad  and  flat-topped.  Limbs  stout  and  ascending. 

BARE — Thick,  rough,  longitudinally  fissured,  dark  brown,  tinged  with  red  within.  Inner 
bark  fragrant,  mucilaginous  and  slippery,  whence  its  common  name.  See  Fig.  66. 

TWIGS— Rather  stout,  difficult?  to  break  on  account  of  flexible  bark,  at  first  hairy  and 
greenish,  later  smoother  and  grayish-brown,  roughened  by  raised  lenticels  and  raised  leaf- 
scars. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  bud  absent;  ovate,  about  1  of  an  inch  long,  dark  chestnut-brown, 
covered  with  about  12  overlapping  bud-scales  coated  with  rusty  brown  hairs.  Flower-buds 
stout  and  located  along  side  of  twig  while  leaf-buds  are  relatively  slender  and  located  towards 
end  of  twig. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  5-7  inches  long,  oval  to  obovate,  thick,  dark  green,  rough 
on  both  sides,  rounded  and  oblique  at  base,  acute  at  apex,  doubly  toothed  on  margin. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  oval,  raised,  lighter  than  twig,  contain  usually  3  rather  small 
and  inconspicuous  bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  before  the  leaves  from  lateral  propagative  buds.  The  smaller  vegetative 
buds  located  near  the  end  of  the  twigs  open  later.  Flowers  are  perfect  and  clustered  on  short 
stalks. 

FRUIT — A  short-stalked  samara  i-i  of  an  Inch  broad,  consisting  of  a  flat  seed  surrounded 
by  a  wing  and  maturing  in  spring  a  few  weeks  after  the  flowers  have  matured.  The  fruit 
is  hairy  only  over  the  seed. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  rather  indistinct  medullary  rays;  pores  of  the  summer  wood 
arranged  ill  tangentially  concentric  bands;  pores  of  spring  wood  form  a  broad  band  of  3  or 
more  rows.  Wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  dark  brown  to  red,  coarse-textured,  easy  to  split, 
very  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  Weighs  45.35  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  posts, 
railway  ties,  slack  cooperage,  agricultural  implements. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Slippery  Elm,  also  known  as  the  Red  Elm 
and  Moose  Elm,  can  be  distinguished  from  the  other  Elms  of  Pennsylvania  by  its  fragrant  and 
mucilaginous  inner  bark  and  its  dark  chestnut-brown  buds  covered  with  rusty  brown  pube- 
scence. It  is  a  smaller  tree  than  either  the  American  or  the  English  Elm.  The  leaves  are 
rough  in  both  directions  while  those  of  the  American  Elm  are  rough  only  in  one  direction.  The 
bark  is  not  so  rough  nor  the  buds  so  dark  colored  as  those  of  the  English  Elm.  Its  lateral 
branches  are  rather  straight  while  those  of  the  American  Elm  are  drooping. 

RANGE — Valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  south  to  Florida,  and  west  to  North  Dakota  and 
Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Scattered  locally  throughout  the  State.  Generally 
absent  in  the  mountainous  region.  Most  common  in  the  valleys.  Does  not  form  pure  stands. 

HABITAT — It  is  commonly  found  on  low  rich  soil,  along  streams,  and  on  hillsides.  In  the 
southern  part  of  Pennsylvania  common  on  limestone  outcrops. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— This  tree  does  not  attain  a  large  size  nor  grow  in 
habitats  where  other  more  valuable  species  will  not  grow,  consequently  it  cannot  be  recom- 
mended for  extensive  planting  for  forestry  purposes.  It  may  be  recommended  for  limited 
planting  in  wet  places,  especially  on  the  border  of  streams  and  on  limestone  outcrops. 


PLATE  LXXI.     SLIPPERY  ELM. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,  x  5. 

2.  A  flower,   enlarged. 

3.  Branch  with  mature  leaves,   x  \. 

4.  Branch  with  mature  fruit  and  expanding  leaf -buds,    x  J. 

5.  Winter  twig  with    (f)    flower  buds,   and    (1)    leaf  buds,   x  J. 

6.  Section  of   a  winter   twig  with   a  densely   pubescent  bud,    enlarged. 

7.  A  leaf-scar  with  bundle-scars,    enlarged. 


PLATE  LXXII.     AMERICAN  ELM. 

1.  Flowering   branch   with   leaf   buds,    x   |. 

2.  A  flower,   enlarged. 

3.  Branch  with   mature  fruit,    immature   leaves   and   an   expanding  bud,    x   1. 

4.  Branch  with  mature  leaves,    x  J. 

5.  Winter  twig  with    (f)   flower  buds,   and    (1)    leaf  buds,   x  J. 

6.  A.  leaf -scar   with   bundle-scars,    enlarged. 

7.  Section  of  a  winter  twig  with  a  slightly  pubescent  bud,   enlarged. 


151 


AMERICAN  ELM. 

Ulmus  americana,  Linnaeus. 

FORM— A  large  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  80-100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2-4  ft., 
but  may  roach  a  height  of  120  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  8-11  feet.  A  tree  in  Jefferson  county, 
Pennsylvania,  reached  a  height  of  140  ft.  and  had  a  crown  spread  of  76  feet.  It  cut  almost 
9,000  board  feet  of  lumber.  The  form  is  very  variable.  The  most  common  kinds  which  are 
recognized  are  "Vase  Form,"  "Umbrella  Form,"  "Oak  Form,"  and  "Feathered  Form."  Some 
trunks  are  tall  and  straight  terminated  by  a  shallow  but  broad  crown  composed  of  very 
gracefully  drooping  lateral  branches.  In  open  grown  trees,  the  trunk  often  divides  near 
the  ground.  The  form  may  resemble  the  spray  of  a  fountain.  See  Fig.  35. 

BATIK — Rather  thick,  grayish  whence  its  name  Gray  Elm,  rougher  by  long  and  Irregular 
furrows  separating  rather  broad,  flat  ridges  which  are  usually  firm  but  occasionally  flaky  or  corky. 
Cross-section  of  bark  often  shows  alternating  white  and  brown  layers. 

TWIGS — Slender,  at  first  greenish  and  pubescent,  later  smooth  and  reddish -brown,  roughened 
by  leaf-scars  and  pale,  inconspicuaus,  scattered  lenticels.  Base  of  twigs  marked  with  persistent 
ring-like  bud-scale  scars. 

BUDS— Alternate;  terminal  bud  absent;  evate,  sharp-pointed,  slightly  flattened,  reddish- 
brown,  usually  smooth,  rarely  slightly  hairy,  covered  with  about  6-10  overlapping  reddish- 
brown  scales  with  darker  margin.  Leaf-buds  are  smaller  than  the  flower-buds  and  located  toward 
end  of  twig.  Flower-buds  are  larger  and  located  along  side  of  twig.  Buds  are  usually 
located  above  one  end  of  leaf-scar. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  ovate,  4-6  inches  long,  thick,  rough,  unequally  based,  acute 
at  apex,  doubly-toothed  on  margin.  Primary  veins  run  straight  from  midrib  to  points  of  the 
teeth. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  elevated,  semi-circular,  with  corky  surface,  marked  with 
three  equidistant  bundle-scars  which  may  be  compounded  and  are  usually  sunken. 

FLOWERS — Appear  before  the  leaves  from  lateral  propagatlve  buds.  Flowers  occur  in  8-4- 
flowered  clusters  on  drooping  stalks  about  1  inch  long.  They  are  perfect  with  greenish  calyx, 
reddish  anthers,  and  light  green  styles. 

FRUIT — An  oval  samara,  about  i  of  an  inch  long,  borne  on  a  slender  stalk;  consists  of  a 
flat  seed  surrounded  by  a  wing  which  is  terminally  deeply  notched  and  ciliated  on  margin. 
Matures  early  in  spring  shortly  after  flowers. 

WOOD— Somewhat  similar  to  Slippery  Elm,  page  150,  but  differs  slightly.  Weighs  40.54 
Ibs.  per  cubic  foot,  is  lighter  in  color  than  Slippery  Elm,  and  has  its  pores  in  spring  wood 
in  a  narrow  band  of  usually  less  than  3  rows.  Its  wood  has  a  wider  range  of  usefulness. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  American  Elm,  also  known  as  White  Elm, 
Gray  Elm,  and  Water  Elm,  can  readily  be  recognized  by  its  leaves  which  are  smooth  on  th« 
upper  surface,  and  by  the  oval  fruit  with  ciliate  margin.  The  flowers  occur  on  slender  drooping 
stalks.  The  buds  are  only  slightly  pubescent  and  covered  with  the  chestnut-brown  scales. 
The  form  and  method  of  branching  are  very  distinctive.  Also  see  "Distinguishing  Character- 
istics" under  Slippery  Elm. 

RANGE — Few  trees  have  so  large  a  range.  It  extends  from  Newfoundland  across  Canada  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains  a  distance  of  almost  3,000  miles  and  south  to  Florida  and  Texas,  a 
distance  of  1,200  miles. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  locally  throughout  the  State.  Most  commop 
in  the  well  watered  portions.  Less  frequent  in  the  mountainous  parts. 

HABITAT — Prefers  rich  moist  bottomlands.  Is  commonly  found  along  streams,  bordering  lakes 
and  ponds,  and  in  rich  alluvial  soil.  Usually  mixed  with  other  hardwoods. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  American  Elm  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  Elm* 
on  account  of  its  wide  distribution,  large  size,  valuable  wood,  and  magnificent  form.  Micbaux 
called  it  "the  most  magnificent  vegetable  of  the  temperate  zone."  It  has  not  been  planted 
much  for  forestry  purposes  but  deserves  to  be  planted,  especially  on  rich  soil  which  may  be  too 
wet  for  agriculture.  It  must  be  planted  clos«  in  order  to  prevent  the  development  of  lateral 
branches. 


152 


HACKBERRY. 
Celtis  occidentalis,  Linnaeus. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION— The  genus  Celtis  comprises  about  60  species,  of  which  number 
about  9  are  native  to  North  America  and  1  to  Pennsylvania.  Representatives  of  this  genus  are 
found  in  temperate  and  tropical  regions  of  both  the  eastern  and  western  hemispheres.  Another 
species  known  as  Rough-leaved  Hackberry  (Celtis  crassifolia,  Lamarck)  is  also  reported  from 
3  counties  in  this  State.  The  leaves  of  the  latter  are  very  rough  and  the  fruit  is  subglobose. 

FORM — Usually  a  small  tree  20-35  ft.  in  height,  but  single  specimens  with  a  height  of 
80  ft.  and  a  diameter  of  30  inches  have  been  reported  for  this  State.  In  the  South  it 
becomes  larger.  Trunk  usually  short.  Crown  rather  wide-spreading  and  round-topped.  Witches' 
brooms  are  frequently  found  upon  it. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  sometimes  as  smooth  as  Beech  bark,  others  have  very  rough  bark 
due  to  harsh,  warty  projections.  Younger  branches  are  dark  brown  to  reddish-brown  in 
color.  See  Fig.  102. 

TWIGS — Slender,  somewhat  shiny,  occasionally  slightly  downy,  brownish,  covered  by  scattered 
raised  and  often  longitudinally-elongated  lenticels;  contain  chambered  white  pith. 

BUDS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  small,  often  malformed  and  swollen,  |  of  an  inch  long,  ovate, 
sharp-pointed,  appressed,  covered  with  3-4  visible  and  closely  overlapping  bud-scales.  Bud- 
scales  sometimes  longitudinally-striated  and  dark  margined.  Swollen  buds  caused  by  insects. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  ovate,  2-4  inches  long,  acute  at  apex,  obliquely  rounded  at  base, 
serrate  on  margin,  entire  near  base,  rough  on  upper  surface,  with  prominent  primary  veins. 
Petioles  slender,  slightly  hairy  and  grooved. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  small,  semi-oval,  at  or  almost  at  right  angles  to  twig 
on  projections  of  twig,  with  1-8  bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May.  Three  kinds,  staminate,  pistillate,  and  perfect,  may  be 
found.  They  are  greenish  and  borne  on  slender  drooping  stalks. 

FRUIT — A  berry-like,  dark  purple,  globular  drupe  about  1-3  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  tipped 
with  persistent  style  and  borne  on  a  slender  stalk.  Matures  about  September  and  often 
persists  into  whiter. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  rays  very  distinct;  pores  in  summer  wood  arranged  in  tangentially 
wavy  bands:  heavy,  not  strong,  coarse-grained,  yellowish.  Weighs  45.51  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 
Used  for  fencing,  crates,  boxes,  slack  cooperage,  hoe  handles,  agricultural  implements. 
Resembles  Ash.  Most  mills  sell  it  as  Ash. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Hackberry,  also  known  as  Sugarberry,  Nettle- 
tree,  Hoop  Ash,  and  Hack-tree,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  chambered  pith,  berry-like  fruit, 
warty  or  corky  bark  and  disfigured  twigs  and  buds.  Abnormally  swollen  twigs  are  due  to 
stings  of  gall  insects.  Witches'  brooms  are  also  common  and  very  distinctive.  The  leaves 
resemble  those  of  the  Elms  only  are  sharper  pointed. 

RANGE — Its  range  covers  about  2,000,000  square  miles  in  the  United  States,  extending 
over  the  major  part  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Occasional  throughout  the  State.  Abundant  along  the 
Conococheague  creek  in  the  Cumberland  Valley.  Sometimes  only  a  single  tree  is  known  in  a 
locality.  Large  specimens  are  found  in  Northampton  and  Montgomery  counties. 

HABITAT — Prefers  rich  moist  soil,  but  also  grows  on  gravelly  uplands.  Does  not  form 
pure  stands,  but  usually  occurs  solitary. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Hackberry  is  of  little  commercial  importance  in 
this  State  since  it  is  a  rare  tree  and  seldom  reaches  a  large  size.  Only  a  few  large  trees 
have  been  recorded  in  this  State.  It  cannot  be  recommended  as  a  timber  tree,  neither 
has  it  any  specially  attractive  ornamental  qualities.  Its  continuity  is  insured  because  the 
birds  carry  the  seed  far  and  wide. 


PLATE  LXXIII.     HACKBERRY. 

1.  Branch  with  immature  leaves,   staminate  and  pistillate  flowers, 
2!  A   staminate   flower,    enlarged. 
8.  A  pistillate  flower,  enlarged. 

4.  A  branch  with  mature  leaves  and  mature  fruit,    x  J. 

5.  A  winter  twig,   x  J. 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  twig  showing  chambered   pith,    enlarged. 

7.  A  leaf-scar  with  bundle-scars,    enlarged. 


z  i. 


PLATE  LXXIV.  OSAGE  ORANGE. 

1.  Branch  with  immature  leaves  and  heads  of  staminate  flowers,   x  J. 

2.  A  staminate  Sower,   enlarged. 

3.  Branch  with  a  head  of  pistillate  flowers,   x  J. 

4.  A  pistillate  flower,   enlarged. 

6.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  and  a  single  mature  fruit,   x  5. 

6.  A  winter  twig  with  three  thorns,  x  J. 

7.  Section  of  a  winter  twig  showing  lenticels,    buds,   and   leaf -scars   with  bundle-scars     enlarged 


153 


OSAGE  ORANGE. 

Maclura  pomifera,    (Raf.)    Schneider. 

GENUS    DESCRIPTION — The    species    described    on    this    page    is    the    sole    representative    of 

this   genus. 

FORM — A  small  or  medium-sized  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  20-40  ft.  with  a  diameter 
of  12  inches  but  reaches  a  height  of  50-60  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2-3  feet.  Trunk  usually 
short,  stout,  often  covered  with  dense  growth  of  sprouts.  Crown  round-topped,  rather 
open,  often  irregular.  Branches  in  interior  of  crown  often  covered  with  stiff,  spiny,  and 
interlacing  branchlets. 

BARK — On  older  trunks  rough,  dark  gray,  about  i-1  inch  thick,  longitudinally  and  sometimes 
diagonally  furrowed,  with  prominent  ridges  which  scale  off  into  thin  close-fitting  scales.  On 
branches  it  is  thinner,  pale  brown  tinged  with  yellow.  Branches  are  often  armed  with  straight 
axillary  spines  and  contain  yellow  pith. 

TWIGS — Alternate,  rather  stout,  at  first  greenish  and  slightly  pubescent,  later  yeUowish- 
brown,  contain  yellow  pith,  marked  by  pale  yellow  lenticels.  Younger  branches  are  often  armed 
with  stout,  straight,  axillary  spines  and  stout,  spur-like,  lateral  branchlets. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  bud  absent;  equal-sized,  broad,  circular,  with  5-7  small  chestnut- 
brown  scales. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  about  4  Inches  long  and  25  inches  wide,  ovate  in  outline, 
wedge-shaped  at  base,  acute  at  apex,  entire  on  margin,  dark  green  above,  pale  green  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate;  located  on  twig  enlargement  at  nodes;  small  to  medium-sized, 
broadly  triangular  to  elliptical,  contain  usually  1  or  3  bundle-scars,  sometimes  more. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  June  when  leaves  are  almost  fully  developed.  Staminate  flowers 
arranged  in  racemes  on  long  slender  drooping  stalks;  pistillate  in  dense  heads  with  short 
stalks.  Ovary  is  terminated  by  a  long,  slender,  hairy  style. 

FRUIT — Pale  green,  orange-like  in  appearance,  4-5  inches  in  diameter,  composed  of  many  small 
drupes  which  are  closely  grown  together.  When  punctured  exudes  a  milky  Juice  which  turns 
black  upou  exposure. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;    rays    rather    inconspicuous;    golden-yellow  in    color,    streaked    vertically 

with   red    stiipes;    heavy,    very    hard    and    strong,    very    durable.  Weighs    48.21    Ibs.    per    cubic 

foot.      Used    for    fence    posts,    wagon    felloes    and    rims,    bridge  piling,    insulator    pins,    police 
clubs,    rustic    chairs,    and    tobacco   pipes. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Osage  Orange,  also  known  as  Bowwood,  Osage 
Apple-tree,  Yellow-wood,  and  Hedge-tree,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  large  orange-like  green 
fruit.  The  twigs  are  armed  with  stout  straight  axillary  spines,  contain  a  milky  Juice  and 
thick  orange-colored  pith  and  are  covered  with  a  light  brown  bark  sometimes  tinged  with  orange. 
The  leaves  are  alternate,  simple,  and  entire.  Wood  is  very  bard  and  orange  to  brown  in  color 
with  light  yellow  sapwood. 

RANGE — Oklahoma  south  to  Dallas,  Texas.  Also  reported  from  Arkansas.  To  date  it  has  been 
planted  in  possibly  every  State  in  the  Union. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Introduced  in  practically  every  part  of  the  State  as  a 
hedge  or  ornamental  tree.  In  many  localities  in  the  State  it  has  escaped  cultivation. 

HABITAT— It  is  less  exacting  in  soil  than  most  of  our  trees,  but  when  it  has  the  privilege 
it  chooses  the  best.  In  its  natural  range  it  thrives  best  on  the  black  fertile  flats,  and  rarely 
occurs  on  sandy  soil.  Occasionally  found  in  swamps.  Originally  found  in  small  pure  stands. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Osage  Orange  is  not  native  to  Pennsylvania  but 
has  been  planted  extensively  for  hedge  and  ornamental  purposes.  No  wood  is  more  valuable 
for  fence  posts.  We  have  other  trees  which  are  more  attractive  as  a  hedge  and  the  thorns 
which  the  tree  bears  are  also  objectionable  when  it  is  used  as  a  hedge.  It  is  difficult  to 
eliminate  it  from  an  area  where  it  has  established  itself. 


154 


RED  MULBERRY. 

Morus  rubra,  Linnaeus. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — The  genus  Morus  comprises  about  10  species  of  which  number  8 
are  native  to  North  America  and  1  to  Pennsylvania.  Its  representatives  occur  as  trees  or 
shrubs  in  eastern  North  America,  Central  America,  South  America,  and  Europe  but  are  most 
abundant  in  Asia.  The  White  Mulberry  (Morus  alba  L.),  a  native  of  Asia,  has  been  planted 
extensively  in  this  State,  and  in  some  localities  has  escaped  cultivation. 

FORM — Usually  attains  a  height  of  35-50  ft.  with  a  diameter  12-18  inches  but  may  reach 
a  height  of  70  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  feet.  Largest  in  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys.  Trunk 
usually  short,  subdividing  near  the  ground.  Crown  usually  broad,  round-topped,  and  dense. 

BARK — Begins  to  roughen  about  third  year  by  splitting  longitudinally  or  diagonally.  On 
older  trunks  rather  thin,  dark  grayish-brown,  peels  off  in  long  narrow  flakes  which  somewhat 
resemble  the  flakes  of  Catalpa.  See  Fig.  55. 

TWIGS — Stout,    smooth,    glossy    or    occasionally    dull,    slightly    zigzag,  greenish-brown    tinged 

with  red,   enlarged  at  nodes  to  bear  buds  and  leaves,    covered  with  few  scattered  inconspicuous 

lenticels,    roughened   at   base    of   season's   growth   by    ring-like   bud-scale  scars.     A   milky    Juice 
is  excreted  from  twigs  if  they  are  cut  or  punctured. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  bud  absent;  ovate,  round  in  cross-section,  sharp-pointed,  about 
2/5  of  an  inch  long,  slightly  divergent  and  laterally  inclined,  covered  by  3-9  exposed  bud-scales 
which  are  2-ranked,  greenish-brown  to  greenish-red  with  darker  margin.  Buds  are  located  on 
twig  enlargements.  A  bud  is  often  found  at  end  of  twig;  it  is  not  a  terminal  bud  but  an 
axillary  one  sometimes  called  a  pseudo-terminal  bud  which  means  a  false  terminal  bud. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  ovate,  3-5  inches  long,  often  cordate  at  base,  serrate  on  margin, 
acute  at  apex,  usually  with  3  primary  veins,  except  in  lobed  forms  where  more  may  be 
present.  Usually  not  lobed  but  occasionally  glove-form,  3-lobed  or  5-lobed.  Leaves  are  slightly 
rough  on  upper  surface. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  raised  on  twig  enlargements,  hollow  or  concave,  almost 
circular,  with  raised  bundle-scars  arranged  in  an  ellipse  or  distributed  irregularly  over 
leaf-scar. 

FLOWERS — Appear  May  or  June.  Staminate  flowers  occur  in  narrow  spikes  about  2  Inches 
long  originating  in  axils  of  prospective  or  developing  leaves  on  short  hairy  green  stalks. 
Pistillate  flowers  occur  in  dense  spikes  about  1  inch  long.  Occasionally  the  staminate  and 
pistillate  are  slightly  mixed  on  a  spike. 

FRUIT — Appears  about  July.  Compound  or  aggregate,  about  1  inch  long,  composed  of  many 
small  drupes,  at  first  green,  later  red,  finally  dark  purple,  juicy,  sweet  and  edible. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  pores  in  summer  wood  small  in  groups  of  3-6;  rays  usually  quite  distinct; 
orange  yellow  to  yellowish-brown,  with  thin  nearly  white  sapwood;  soft,  not  strong,  durable 
in  contact  with  soil.  Weighs  36.75  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  fence  posts,  scythe  snaths, 
cooperage,  boat  building. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Red  Mulberry,  also  known  as  simply  Mulberry 
and  sometimes  Black  Mulberry,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  large  alternate  2-ranked  greenish- 
brown  buds  with  darker  colored  bud-scale  margins,  by  its  3-veined  leaves  which  have  their 
veins  sunken  on  upper  surface,  and  are  usually  rough  on  the  upper  surface.  The  milky  Juice 
of  the  twigs  and  Its  peculiar  flowers  and  fruit  are  distinctive.  The  leaves  are  occasionally 
lobed.  In  winter  the  elevated  and  hollowed  leaf-scars  with  bundle-scars  arranged  in  an  ellipse 
are  characteristic. 

RANGE — Massachusetts   to   Florida,    west   to   Kansas    and    Nebraska. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Local  and  sparse  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts, 
occasional  in  the  central  part  and  rare  in  mountainous  parts. 

HABITAT — Prefers  rich  moist  soil.  Most  common  ,in  valleys  and  on  foothills.  Usually  mixed 
with  other  hardwoods. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Red  Mulberry  does  not  produce  wood  of  any  special 
commercial  importance  because  it  is  nowhere  abundant  and  does  not  reach  a  large  size.  It 
is  used  for  fence  posts  because  it  is  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  The  wood  resembles  Black 
Walnut  when  polished,  only  is  somewhat  lighter.  It  produces  a  pleasing  effect  when  made  up 
Into  furniture,  it  cannot  be  strongly  recommended  for  forestry  purposes  but  it  is  an  excellent 
ornamental  tree  and  also  furnishes  food  for  birds. 


PLATE  LXXV.     RED  MULBERRY. 

1.  Branch  with  immature  leaves  and  four  staminate  flower  spikes,   x  |. 
2    Branch  with  immature  leaves  and  three  pistillate  flower  spikes,  x  J. 

3.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  and  mature  fruit,   x  J. 

4.  A   winter   twig,    x   J. 

5.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,   enlarged. 

5.  A  leaf-scar  with  bundle-scars,   enlarged. 


155 


THE  MAGNOLIA  FAMILY— MAGNOLIACEAE. 

The  Magnolia  family  comprises  about  10  genera  with  about  85 
species  of  trees  and  shrubs,  which  are  widely  distributed  in  temper- 
ate and  tropical  regions.  The  flora  of  North  America  embraces  4 
genera,  2  of  which  comprise  only  shurbs  while  the  other  2  contain 
some  of  our  well-known  and  important  timber  trees.  The  2  arbores- 
cent genera,  Magnolia  and  Liriodendron,  include  about  9  species  in 
North  America.  Both  genera  are  represented  in  the  flora  of  Penn- 
sylvania, the  former  with  3  species  and  the  latter  with  1  species. 

KEY  TO  THE  GENERA. 

Page. 

1.    Leaves   not   lobed;    fruit   a   cone   of   fleshy   coherent    follicles;    bud*  ovate   to   conical, 
sharp-pointed,    hairy    at    least    within;    leaf -scars    lunate    to    oval    usually    with    3, 

sometimes    many,     bundle-scars Magnolia         156 

1.    Leaves  4-lobed  or  6-lobed;   fruit  a  spindle-shaped   cone  of  dry  carpels;   buds  flattened,    • 
oblong,    blunt-pointed,    smooth    both    on    outside    and    inside;    leaf -scars    circular    or 
sometimes   slightly   flattened   at   top   with   many    scattered   bundle-scars,    Liriodendron         159 


THE  MAGNOLIAS— MAGNOLIA,    Linnaeus. 

The  Magnolias  are  among  the  most  beautiful  trees  native  to  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania.  All  the  Magnolias  have  the  appearance  of 
tropical  trees  and  in  fact  most  of  them  do  not  venture  far  beyond 
warm  latitudes.  Their  large,  entire-margined,  pinnately  veined 
leaves  and  their  large,  solitary  and  conspicuous  flowers  are  largely 
responsible  for  their  tropical  appearance.  This  genus  derived  its 
name  from  Pierre  Magnol,  a  French  botanist,  who  was  sometime 
Professor  of  Botany  in  Montpellier  and  died  in  1715.  It  embraces 
about  25  species  of  trees  and  shrubs  3  of  which  are  native  to  Penn- 
sylvania. The  members  of  this  genus  are  natives  of  eastern  North 
America,  southern  Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  and  eastern  and  central 
Asia. 

SUMMER  KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES. 

Page. 
1.    Leaves    crowded    at   the    end    of    the    flowering    branches    in    an    umbrella-like    circle, 

and  12-24  inches  long : M.   tripetala         158 

1,  Leaves    scattered    along    the    branches,    and    3-12    inches    long,     2 

2.  Large  tree;   leaves  4-12   inches  long  and  deciduous;    flowers   green   to  yellow;    follicles 

rounded M.     acuminata        157 

2.    Small  tree  or  shrub;  leaves  3-6  inches  long,   glaucous  on  under  side,   often  persistent; 

flowers   white;    follicles   tapering   or   tipped   with   styles M.    virginiana        156 

WINTER  KEY   TO   THE    SPECIES. 

1.    Buds  1-2  inches  long  and  smooth  on  outside;  leaf -scars  large;  twigs  stout,  M.  tripetala        158 

1.  Buds    less    than    1    inch    long,    silky    to    almost    smooth    on   outside;    leaf -scars    small; 

twigs   slender 2 

2,  Large   tree;    leaves   deciduous;    twigs   brown;    bark   furrowed   and   flaky;    buds   blunt- 

pointed,   densely  downy • M.    aouminata        157 

2.    Small   tree   or   shrub;    leaves   may   persist;    twigs   green;    bark    smooth;    buds   green, 

pointed,    hairy    to    smooth M.    virginiana        IW 


156 


LAUREL  MAGNOLIA. 

Magnolia  virginiana,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — Usually  a  small  tree  or  shrub  seldom  exceeding  a  height  of  25  ft.  but  In  the  south, 
particulaily  in  Florida,  may  attain  a  height  of  75  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  feet.  In  Pennsyl- 
vania rather  small.  Trunk  usually  short,  often  much  swollen  at  the  base. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  thin,  gray,  smooth  to  scaly;  on  young  stems  light  gray  to  white 
and  smooth. 

TWIGS — Green,  round,  bitter,  relatively  slender,  downy,  later  reddish-brown,  roughened  by 
broadly  crescent-shaped  leaf-scars.  Pith  has  a  tendency  to  become  chambered. 

BUDS — Alternate,  bright  green,  2/5-3/5  of  an  inch  long,  circular  in  cross-section,  pointed, 
decidedly  hairy,  covered  by  successive  pairs  of  stipules.  Each  pair  of  stipular  scales 
envelopes  the  leaf  Just  above  it. 

LEAVES— Alternate,  simple,  oval  to  broadly  lanceolate,  3-6  inches  long,  obtuse  at  apex, 
tapering  at  base,  entire  on  margin,  glaucous  beneath.  Fall  off  in  autumn  in  the  North  but 
persist  in  the  South.  Persist  until  spring  in  Franklin  county,  Pennsylvania. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  scattered  along  twig,  narrow,  oval  to  crescent-shaped,  with  its 
bundle-scars  arranged  in  a  broad  U-shaped  line. 

FLOWERS— Appear  the  latter  part  of  May  in  this  State.  Complete,  solitary,  globular,  white, 
calyx  and  corolla  of  same  color,  about  2  inches  long,  and  very  fragrant. 

FRUIT — Matures  about  October.  Cone-like,  fleshy  to  dry,  scarlet,  oval,  about  2  inches  long, 
composed  of  coherent  follicles.  Seeds  are  red,  shiny,  drupe-like  and  suspended  at  maturity 
by  a  thin  long  cord. 

WOOD — Similar  to  that  of  the  Cucumber  Tree,  page  157,  except  that  its  rays  are  higher 
and  more  crowded  on  the  cross-section  than  those  of  the  Cucumber  Tree.  Produces  wood  of  com- 
mercial size  only  in  the  South.  Weighs  31.38  IDS.  per  cubic  foot. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Laurel  Magnolia,  also  known  as  Small  Mag- 
nolia, or  Sweet  Bay,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  leaves  which  are  scattered  along  the  branches, 
3-6  inches  long,  oval,  obtuse,  and  glaucous  beneath.  The  leaves  of  both  the  other  native 
species  are  larger.  The  flowers  are  globular  and  white  while  those  of  the  Cucumber  Tree 
are  slendor-bell-shaped  and  greenish  tinged  with  yellow,  and  those  of  the  Umbrella  Tree  are 
only  slightly  scented.  The  leaf-buds  are  silky  while  those  of  the  Umbrella  Tree  are  smooth 
or  slightly  hairy.  Its  small  size  will  also  aid  in  distinguishing  it.  The  "Distribution  in 
Pennsylvania"  of  the  three  native  species  will  also  aid  in  identifying  them. 

RANGE — Eastern  Massachusetts,  south  to  Florida,  extending  west  to  Caledonia  near  Cham- 
bersburg,  Pennsylvania,  central  North  Carolina  and  through  the  Gulf  States  to  Texas  and 
southern  Arkansas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  only  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  State. 
Recorded  from  every  county  southeast  of  a  line  drawn  through  Northampton,  Lehigh,  Lebanon, 
Cumberland  and  Franklin  counties.  Its  western  limit  is  at  Caledonia  near  Chambersburg  in 
Franklin  county. 

HABITAT — Prefers  swamps  and  wet  places.  Found  along  creeks  or  in  bottomlands  adjoining 
creeks,  lakes,  or  ponds.  Often  a  low  shrub  under  moisture-seeking  trees  like  Red  Maple,  Yellow 
Birch,  Black  Gum,  White  Oak,  Hemlock,  White  Pine,  and  Tulip  Tree.  Its  associates  often  are 
Rhododendron  and  Mountain  Laurel. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  SPECIES— This  species  is  of  no  commercial  importance  in  Pennsylvania 
because  of  its  small  size,  limited  distribution,  slow  growth,  and  inferior  wood.  It  is  extremely 
attractive  and  may  be  classified  among  our  most  beautiful  native  shrubs.  It  is  well  adapted  for 
ornamental  planting,  only  it  grows  rather  slowly. 


PLATE  LXXVI.  LAUREL  MAGNOLIA. 

1.  A  flowering  branch  with  mature  and  developing  leaves,  x  j. 

2.  A  fruiting  branch  with  a  portion  of  the  leaves  removed,   x  J. 

3.  A  seed,  natural  size. 

4.  A  winter  twig,   x  5. 

5.  Section   of   a    winter   twig   showing   a   leaf-scar   with    bundle-scars,    natural    size. 


PLATE  LXXVII.     CUCUMBER  TREE. 


1.  A  flowering  branch  with  mature  and  develop- 

ing leaves,  x  J. 

2.  Branch  with  a  cone-like  fruit,    seeds  hanging 

by  threads,  and  a  mature  leaf,  x  J. 

3.  A  carpel  just  starting  to  open,    showing  two 

seeds   on    the    inside,    natural    size. 


4.  A  seed,    enlarged. 

5.  A   winter  twig,    x   J. 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  twig  showing  a  bud  andi 

a  leaf-scar  with   bundle-scars,    enlarged. 


157 


CUCUMBER  TREE. 
Magnolia  acuminata,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — A  large  tree,  which  may  attain  a  height  of  90  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3-4  feet.  The 
form  of  the  forest  grown  tree  is  distinct  from  the  open  grown.  Open  grown  specimens  have 
a  pyramidal  crown  with  limbs  originating  all  along  the  trunk  from  near  the  base  to  the  narrow 
top.  Lateral  branches  are  wide-spreading  and  rather  horizontal  near  the  base,  ascending  and 
short  at  the  top.  Forest  grown  specimens  have  straight,  slightly  tapering,  rather  smooth 
trunks  which  are  free  from  branches  often  for  50  ft.  from  the  ground. 

BARK — Grayish-brown  to  brown,  with  long  furrows  separating  long,  rather  loose,  scaly  ridges. 
See  Fig.  85. 

TWIGS — Usually  slender,  round,  usually  smooth  but  sometimes  slightly  hairy,  shiny,  bitter, 
covered  with  a  few  orange-colored  inconspicuous  lenticels,  and  contain  white  pith  which  may 
show  a  tendency  to  become  chambered. 

BUDS — Alternate,  circular  in  cross-section,  densely  covered  with  thick,  pale,  silky  hairs, 
terminal  buds  about  2/5-4/5  of  an  inch  long  and  oblong;  lateral  buds  i-i  of  an  inch  long,  blunt- 
pointed,  nearly  surrounded  by  leaf-scars.  Buds  are  covered  with  valvate  scales,  the  outer 
ones  falling  in  spring,  the  inner  ones  developing  into  stipules. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  ovate  to  oblong,  thin,  4-12  inches  long,  pointed  at  apex,  tapering 
or  rounded  at  base,  entire  on  margin,  green  and  slightly  downy  beneath,  with  prominent 
midrib  and  primary  veins  on  lower  surface.  Fall  in  response  to  first  tyeavy  frost  in  autumn. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  scattered  along  the  twigs,  narrow,  crescent  to  broadly  U-shaped, 
with  its  bundle-scars  arranged  in  a  U-shaped  line.  Bundle-scars  number  about  6-8. 

FLOWERS — Appear  from  April  to  June.  They  are  upright,  solitary,  complete,  slender-bell- 
shaped,  greenish  tinged  with  yellow,  about  3  inches  long. 

FRUIT — Matures  about  October.  A  red,  cone-like  or  cucumber-like,  cylindrical  mass  about 
2-2J  inches  long,  composed  of  numerous  coherent  follicles.  Seeds  scarlet,  drupe-like,  and  sus- 
pended at  maturity  by  long,  slender  white  threads. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  distinct  and  rather  uniform  in  width;  light,  soft,  brittle, 
straight-grained,  durable,  does  not  warp  when  seasoning,  light  yellowish-brown  to  reddish- 
brown;  sapwood  is  thin  and  yellowish-white.  Weighs  about  29  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for 
interior  finish,  furniture,  pump  stocks,  as  a  substitute  for  Yellow  Poplar,  and  for  the  same 
uses  as  White  Pine.  It  is  not  so  strong  but  more  durable  than  the  latter. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Cucumber  Tree  can  be  distinguished  by  Its 
leaves  which  are  thin,  oblong,  pointed  and  green  beneath.  The  leaves  are  larger  than  those 
of  the  Laurel  Magnolia  and  smaller  than  those  of  the  Umbrella  Tree.  The  corolla  is  greenish 
tinged  with  yellow  and  the  follicles  of  the  cone-like  fruit  are  rounded  while  the  other  two 
native  species  have  white  flowers  and  tapering  follicles.  It  attains  a  much  larger  size  and 
has  sharper-pointed  bu-.ls  than  the  Laurel  Magnolia  and  is  considerably  larger  than  the  Umbrella 
Tree  but  has  smaller  and  more  downy  buds.  The  bark  is  thicker  and  deeper  ridged  than  either 
cf  the  other  species.  The  twigs  are  brown  while  those  of  the  Laurel  Magnolia  are  bright  green. 

RANGE — Western  New  York  and  southern  Ontario  south  through  West  Virginia  to  Georgia, 
west  to  Illinois  and  Arkansas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Found  locally  across  the  State  from  north  to  south 
in  the  mountainous  region"  and  on  their  eastern  and  western  slopes.  Recorded  as  far  east  aa 
Lancaster  county  and  as  far  west  as  Lawrence,  Mercer,  and  Allegheny  counties.  Some  specimens 
nearly  5  ft.  in  diameter  have  been  recorded  from  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  'a  rich  woods  close  to  streams,  also  inhabits  slopes.  In  West  Virginia 
and  in  this  State  it  grows  well  on  the  soils  of  the  carboniferous  formation.  It  is  light-de- 
manding. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— This  species  is  the  most  important  of  the  Magnolias 
native  to  the  United  States.  The  wood  is  similar  to  that  of  Yellow  Poplar.  In  addition  to 
producing  valuable  wood  it  grows  rapidly  and  is  rather  free  from  the  attack  of  destructive 
agents.  The  value  ot  the  wood  alone  will  justify  reasonable  efforts  in  attempting  to  propagate 
it.  It  is  also  attractive  ornamentally  on  account  of  its  large  loaves  and  symmetrical  crown. 


158 


UMBRELLA  TREE. 
Magnolia  tripetala,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — A  small  tree  sometimes  attaining  the  height  of  45  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  16  inches. 
Trunk  short  and  slender,  bearing  a  broad  round-topped  crown.  Lateral  branches  stout  and 
spreading,  often  turned  up  towards  the  end. 

BARK — Smooth,   thick,    light  gray,    roughened   by   small   irregularly    scattered   projections. 

TWIGS — Stout,  smooth,  shining,  at  first  greenish,  later  reddish  to  greenish-brown;  bitter, 
swollen  at  the  base  of  each  year's  growth,  covered  with  a  few  conspicuous  lenticels;  contain  large, 
white,  pink-dotted  pith. 

BUDS — Alternate;  covered  with  valvate  scales  in  pairs,  each  successive  pair  encloses  a  leaf; 
terminal  and  lateral  buds  differ  much;  terminal  up  to  2  inches  in  length,  narrow,  conical,  long- 
pointed,  often  curved  towards  the  apex,  smooth  or  glaucous,  purple,  with  small  dots;  lateral 
small,  often  barely  visible,  conical,  divergent. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  obovate-lanceolate,  12-24  inches  long,  thin-pointed  at  apex, 
tapering  at  base,  entire  on  margin;  smooth  when  old;  petioles  1-lf  inches  long. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  often  clustered  at  swellings  along  the  branch,  large,  conspicuous, 
oval,  somewhat  raised,  contain  numerous  irregularly  scattered  bundle-scars.  Stipulate-scars 
conspicuous,  encircle  twig,  .and  originate  from  the  side  of  the  leaf -scar. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May.  Upright,  solitary,  complete,  surrounded  by  a  spray  of  leaves, 
white,  slightly  and  unpleasantly  odorous,  4-6  inches  long.  Sepals  fall  away  early. 

FRUIT — Matures  about  October.  An  oblong  rose-colored,  cone-like  mass  about  2-4  inches 
long  composed  of  many  coherent  follicles  which  split  open  and  liberate  red  flattish  seeds.  The 
fruit  is  very  beautiful  in  autumn. 

WOOD — In  general  resembles  that  of  the  Cucumber  Tree,  page  157.  It  is  not  used  for 
commercial  purposes,  because  it  is  rare,  small  in  size,  light,  weak,  and  brittle.  Weighs  27.96 
Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Umbrella  Tree,  also  known  as  Elkwood,  is 
native  only  to  a  limited  portion  of  the  State  in  the  Susquehanna  River  valley  in  the  counties 
of  York  and  Lancaster.  It  has  larger  leaf-scars,  stouter  twigs,  larger  fruit,  larger  and 
smoother  buds,  and  larger  leaves  than  the  two  other  native  species  of  Magnolia.  Its  leaves  are 
crowded  on  the  summit  of  the  flowering  branches  in  an  umbrella-like  cluster  while  those  of  the 
other  two  species  are  scattered  along  the  branches.  It  is  larger  in  size  than  the  Laurel  Mag- 
colia  -but  smaller  than  the  Cucumber  Tree. 

RANGE — Southern  Pennsylvania  south  to  Georgia,  •  west  to  Kentucky,  Arkansas,  and  northern 
Mississippi. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Recorded  only  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the 
State  in  Lancaster  and  York  counties  along  the  Susquehanna  River. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  in  swamps,  along  streams,  or  in  ravines.  It  is  tolerant  of  shade 
and  usually  occurs  solitary;  sometimes  mixed  with  other  hardwoods. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  tree  is  of  no  commercial  importance  in  Pennsylvania 
on  account  of  its  limited  distribution,  its  local  and  solitary  occurrence,  and  the  inferior  wood 
which  it  produces.  It  is  attractive  and,  hence,  may  be  recommended  for  lawn  and  park  plant- 
ing, but  it  cannot  be  recommended  for  forestry  purposes. 


PLATE  LXXVIII.     UMBRELLA  TREE. 

1.  A  mature  leaf,   x  J. 

2.  Branch  with  a  single  flower  and  the  bases  of  five  leaves  arranged  in  an  umbrella-like  circle,  x  ft. 

3.  A  carpel  split  open  showing  seeds,  natural  size. 

4.  A  seed,  enlarged. 

5.  Branch  with   a  terminal  cone-like  fruit,    x   5. 

6.  A  winter  twig,   x  j. 

7.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,   enlarged. 


PLATE  LXXIX.     TULIP  TREE. 

1.  A     flowering    branch    with     mature    and    developing     leaves,     x 

2.  Branch   with   a   cone-like  fruit,    x   J. 

3.  A   single   carpel,    natural   size. 

4    Portion   of   a    carpel   showing    seeds,    natural   size. 

5.  A  seed,  enlarged. 

<5    Side  view  of  a  seed,    enlarged. 

7.  A  winter  twig,  x  J. 

8.  A  terminal  bud  just  opening,   x  J. 

9.  A  twig  showing  developing  leaves,    x  J. 


159 

TULIP  TREE. 
Liriodendron  Tulipifera,  Linnaeus. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — This  genus  has  numerous  fossil  representatives,  but  only  one  other 
living  species,  a  native  of  China  (Liriodendron  chinonsis,  Sarg.)  is  known. 

FOEM — A  large  and  interesting  tree  often  attaining  a  height  of  50-70  ft.  with  a  diameter  of 
2-3  ft.  and  sometimes  reaching  a  height  of  200  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  10-11  feet.  Prof.  Guyot 
recorded  a  tree  in  Francis  Cove,  western  North  Carolina,  known  as  the  "Guyot  or  Granny 
Poplar,"  which  has  a  diameter  of  16  ft.  and  was  free  from  lateral  branches  for  more  than  100 
ft.  from  the  base.  Trunk  tall,  straight,  very  slightly  tapering,  free  from  lateral  branches  for  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  base.  Crown  in  young  trees  pyramidal,  in  older  trees  rather 
shallow,  broad,  and  spreading.  See  Fig.  41. 

BARK — When  young  smooth,  bitter,  ashy-gray.  On  trunks  brown,  thick,  distinctly  marked  with 
long  an«l  regular  furrows  and  ridges.  At  a  distance  it  resembles  the  bark  of  the  White  Ash 
but  lacks  the  characteristic  diamond-shaped  fissures  of  the  latter.  See  Fig.  84. 

TWIGS — During  the  first  summer  green,  smooth,  rather  slender,  often  branching,  marked  with 
indistinct  lenticels,  encircled  by  a  pair  of  stipules  at  each  node.  During  first  winter  reddish- 
brown,  smooth,  shiny,  marked  by  conspicuous  pale  lenticels,  elevated  leaf-scars  and  stipular 
rings  encircling  the  twigs  which  often  persist  for  many  years. 

BUDS — Alternate,  large,  smooth,  flattened,  oblong,  blunt-pointed,  reddish-brown  mottled  with 
white  dots  and  covered  with  glaucous  bloom.  Lateral  buds  rather  divergent,  smaller  than  the 
terminal,  sometimes  superposed.  Bud-scales  smooth,  white-dotted,  spoon-shaped,  valvate  in  pairs 
forming  a  distinct  ridge  where  they  meet.  Each  pair  of  stipular  scales  incloses  in  succession  a 
rcflexed,  folded,  stalked  leaf  with  its  2  stipular  scales.  Stipular  scales  enlarge  when  the  bud 
opens  to  a  length  of  2  inches  and  width  of  1  inch.  Each  succeeding  leaf  is  reflezed  in  the  op- 
posite direction  of  the  preceding  one. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  broadly  ovate  in  outline,  truncate  at  apex,  with  2  apical  and 
2-4  basal  lobes,  bright  green  above,  paler  below.  Petioles  slender,  5-6  inches  long. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  elevated,  conspicuous,  large,  orbicular.  Bundle-scars  small,  numerous, 
scattered  uniformly  over  the  leaf-scar. 

FLOWERS — Appear  after  the  leaves;  large,  l|-2  inches  deep,  cup-shaped,  greenish-yellow,  with 
3  reflexed  sepals  and  6  converging  petals. 

FRUIT— Matures  in  September  or  October;  a  light  brown,  oblong,  pointed  cone  2J-3  inches  long, 
i  of  an  inch  wide,  consisting  of  carpels  1-li  inches  long  in  the  base  of  which  the  seeds  are 
contained. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  with  small  inconspicuous  medullary  rays;  soft,  not  strong,  light,  not 
durable  in  ground,  easily  worked,  light  yellowish  or  brownish  heartwood  with  thin  white 
sapwood.  Weighs  26.36  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  in  construction,  interior  finish,  furniture 
especially  in  veneering,  shingles,  wooden-ware  and  automobile  bodies.  Its  uses  are  somewhat 
similar  to  White  Pine. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Tulip  Tree  also  known  as  Yellow  Poplar,  White- 
wood,  Tulip  Poplar  and  sometimes  Popple,  can  readily  be  recognized  in  summer  by  its  straight 
clean  fissured  bole,  its  characteristic  leaves  with  truncate  apex  and  large  stipules.  The  leaf  can- 
not be  confused  with  that  of  any  other  species  since  it  appears  from  a  distance  to  have  its 
apex  cut  off  at  right  angles  to  the  midrib.  In  spring  the  flower  is  also  distinctive.  In  winter 
the  large  clean  trunks  with  their  peculiar  fissures  in  the  bark  together  with  the  fruit  which  often 
persists,  are  characteristic.  At  close  range  the  buds  with  the  stipule-scars  encircling  the  twigs 
will  always  enable  one  to  recognize  this  species  without  fail.  The  rather  large  pith  often  divided 
by  partitions  of  stone  cells  is  peculiar. 

RANGE — Botanical  range  from  Rhode  Island  to  Michigan  and  Missouri,  south  to  Florida  and 
Arkansas.  Commercial  range  not  so  wide. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN   PENNSYLVANIA— Most  common  along   streams  or  moist  locations  in   the 

eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the  State.     Also  found  locally  in  western  part.     It  does  not  appear 

in  pure  stands,   but  some  excellent  stands  almost  approaching  pure  stands  are  found  in  Frank- 
lin,   Adams,    and   Northampton   counties. 

HABITAT— It  prefers  deep,  rather  rich,  and  moist  soil.  Common  along  streams,  on  islands, 
upon  semi-swampy  areas,  and  at  the  base  of  mountain  slopes.  Sometimes  found  on  the  tops  of 
mountains  especially  where  small  streams  and  springs  are  prevalent.  Usually  occurs  as 
scattered  individuals  mixed  with  other  hardwoods  and  sometimes  White  Pine  and  Hemlock. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Tnlip  Tree  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  de- 
sirable timber  trees  of  Pennsylvania.  Its  wood  belongs  in  the  first  rank  with  White  Pine. 
It  is  rather  difficult  to  propagate  artifically  on  account  of  the  low  fertility  of  the  seeds  and 
its  sensitiveness  to  transplanting.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  propagate  it  by  means  of 
cuttings  but  without  success.  Natural  seed  regeneration  of  this  species  can  be  carried  on 
with  success  and  should  be  advocated  and  developed  in  preference  to  the  artificial.  This  spe- 
cies is  also  free  from  insect  and  fungal  diseases  and  most  desirable  as  a  shade,  lawn,  and 
avenue  tree. 


160 

COMMON  PAP  AW. 

Asimina  triloba,  Dunal. 

FAMILY  AND  GENUS  DESCRIPTION — The  Custard  Apple  family,  Anonaceae,  comprises 
about  46  genera  with  600  species  confined  mostly  to  the  tropics.  Only  a  few  species  are  found 
in  temperate  regions.  This  family  produces  little  that  is  of  real  economic  importance.  Only  2 
genera,  Asimina  and  Anona,  are  represented  by  tree  species  in  the  United  States.  The  genus 
Asimina  does  not  have  representatives  outside  of  North  America,  where  about  8  species  are 
known  to  occur.  The  sole  representative  of  this  family  native  to  this  State  is  the  species  de- 
scribed on  this  page. 

FORM — A  small  tree  usually  10-40  ft.  in  height  with  a  diameter  up  to  12  inches.  Trunk  short 
and  slender.  Crown  rather  broad,  high,  and  formed  by  straight  rather  spreading  lateral  branches. 

BARE — Thin,  close,  sometimes  slightly  fissured,  dark  brown,  often  covered  with  scattered 
white  blotches. 

TWIGS — Round,  olive-brown,  enlarged  at  the  nodes,  rather  slender,  at  first  often  somewhat 
hairy  towards  apex;  later  smooth,  covered  with  a  few  fine  lenticels  which  become  evident  dur- 
ing second  year;  pith  small  and  white. 

BUDS — Alternate,  2-ranked  or  sometimes  3-ranked,  brown,  naked,  hairy.  Terminal,  lateral 
leaf  and  flower  buds  differ  in  size  and  form.  Terminal  bud  is  much  longer  than  tlie  others  and 
evidently  flattened.  Lateral  leaf-buds  about  J  of  an  inch  long,  closely  appressed  to  twig 
aud  located  in  notch  on  upper  surface  of  leaf-scars.  Flower-buds  are  lateral  along  the  twig, 
spherical  in  outline,  about  1/6  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  very  hairy  and  dark  brown;  do  not  stand 
quite  parallel  to  twig. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  obovate-lanceolate,  4-12  inches  long,  thin,  pointed  at  apex, 
tapering  at  base,  entire  on  margin,  when  mature  dark  green  above  and  paler  below.  In  au- 
tumn they  turn  rusty  yellow. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  located  on  enlarged  projections  of  the  twig,  inclined  at  about  an 
angle  of  35  degrees  to  the  twig,  broadly  U-shaped,  almost  surround  bud,  somewhat  lighter  than 
the '  twig,  contain  usually  5  bundle-scars  which  are  often  compounded.  A  ridge  extends  across 
the  leaf-scar  from  the  bud  to  the  base  of  the  scar. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April  or  May  with  the  leaves  but  are  usually  located  below  them 
along  the  twigs.  They  occur  solitary  and  axillary;  are  perfect,  at  first  green,  later  reddish- 
purple,  1-15  inches  wide,  and  borne  on  stout  hairy  stalks. 

FRUIT — Suggests  a  stubby  banana,  is  cylindrical,  rounded,  or  occasionally  blunt-pointed  at 
the  ends,  3-5  inches  long,  at  first  green,  later  dark-brown,  pulpy,  edible,  contains  many  dark- 
brown,  shiny,  flattened  seeds  which  are  scattered  throughout  the  flesh. 

WOOD — Ring-porous  with  a  diffuse-porous  tendency;  rays  very  numerous  and  distinct;  heart- 
wood  brownish;  sapwood  yellowish;  weak,  soft,  weighs  about  25  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Not  used 
commercially. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Common  Papaw  can  be  recognized  best  in  au- 
tumn by  its  unique  fruit  which  is  very  suggestive  of  a  stubby  banana.  In  spring  the  greenish- 
brown  to  reddish-purple  flowers  which  occur  solitary  along  the  twigs  and  measure  1-1J  inches 
across  are  also  characteristic.  The  large,  tropical-like,  alternate  leaves  will  also  aid  in  recog- 
nizing it.  In  winter  the  long,  slender,  somewhat  flattened,  naked,  brownish,  terminal  buds 
and  the  spherical  flower-buds  along  the  side  of  the  twigs  and  the  U-shaped  leaf-scars  which  almost 
surround  the  buds  and  usually  contains  5  bundle-scars,  will  enable  one  to  distinguish  it. 
The  fact  that  it  occurs  only  in  about  the  southern  third  of  the  State  may  also  help  in  distinguish- 
ing it. 

RANGE — Western  New  York  and  west  central  New  Jersey  south  to  Florida  and  west  to 
Michigan,  Kansas,  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Locally  found  in  small  groups  in  practically  every 
county  of  ti'.e  State  south  of  a  line  drawn  from  Pittsburgh  through  Harrisburg  and  Reading  to 
Doylestown  in  Bucks  county.  Not  common  anywhere  but  well  known  on  account  of  its  peculiar 
fruit.  Usually  found  below  altitude  of  1,000  feet  but  in  the  South  Mountains  in  Adams  and 
Franklin  counties  found  at  1,200  feet. 

HABITAT — Prefers  rich  moist  situations.  Usually  found  in  river  valleys  near  streams  but  oc- 
casionally ascends  low  fertile  slopes.  It  may  form  dense  thickets  but  in  this  State  usually 
occurs  solitary  or  in  rather  open  groups.  Occurs  with  other  species  in  the  understory  of  the 
forest,  and  is  very  tolerant  of  shade. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THB  SPECIES — This  species  is  of  no  commercial  importance  as  a  forest 
tree  anywhere  in  its  range.  The  fruit  which  it  produces  is  of  more  value  than  its  wood.  It 
never  reaches  a  large  size,  and  in  addition  is  local  and  limited  in  its  distribution.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  very  attractive  tree  on  account  of  its  somewhat  drooping  tropical  leaves,  handsome 
flowers,  and  peculiar  fruit. 


PLATE  LXXX.     COMMON  PAPAW. 

1.  A  mature  leaf,  x  i. 

2.  A    flowering    branch    with    immature    leaves,     x    a. 
a    A  fruiting  branch,   x  I. 

Section  of  a  fruit  showing  seeds,   x  J. 

A  seed,    natural   size. 

A  winter  twig,   x  J. 

Section  of  a  winter  twig,    enlarged. 


PLATE  LXXXI.     SASSAFRAS. 


1.  An  ovate,   entire  leaf,   x  J. 

2.  A   glove-form    leaf,    x   i. 

3.  A  3-lobed  leaf,   x  i~ 

4.  A     flowering    branch     with 

5.  A   fertile   flower;    enlarged. 

6.  A   sterile   flower,    enlarged. 

7.  A  fruiting  branch,    x   J. 

8.  A  winter  twig,   x  J. 

9.  Section  of  a  winter   twig, 


immature    leaves,     x    J. 


161 


SASSAFRAS. 
Sassafras  variifolium,  (Salisbury)  Kuntze. 

FAMILY  AND  GENUS  DESCRIPTION— The  Laurel  family,  Lauraceae,  comprises  about  40 
genera  with  between  900  and  1,000  species  which  are  confined  mostly  to  the  tropics.  Six 
genera  are  found  in  North  America,  4  of  which  reach  tree-size.  Two  genera,  Sassafras  and 
Benzoin,  are  native  to  Pennsylvania.  The  species  described  on  this  page  is  the  sole  representa- 
tive in  North  America  of  the  genus  Sassafras,  but  another  species  is  recorded  from  China. 
The  sole  representatives  in  this  State  of  the  genus  Benzoin  is  the  Spice  Bush  (Benzoin  aestlvale 
(L.)  Nees.)  The  Spice  Bush  can  readily  be  distinguished  by  its  small  size,  its  aromatic  and 
spicy  twigs,  its  simple,  entire,  alternate  leaves,  its  clusters  of  yellow  flowers  which  appear 
before  the  loaves,  and  its  scarlet  fruit. 

FORM — Usually  reaches  a  height  of  40-50  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  1-3  ft.,  but  in  the  South 
may  reach  a  height  of  100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2-4  feet.  Trunk  usually  stout,  short,  bearing 
a  crown  with  more  or  less  contorted  branches.  Crown  usually  flat-topped  or  rounded,  the  terminal 
part  rather  dense,  the  lower  part  very  open.  Branches  are  extremely  brittle.  See  Fig.  40. 

BARK — Roughened  with  shallow  fissures  frequently  as  early  as  the  third  year,  hence  a  young 
tree  often  appears  old.  On  older  trunks  reddish-brown,  deeply  fissured,  and  flat  ridged.  Ridges 
resemble  small  blocks,  or  Ys,  or  Vs,  and  separate  into  thin  appressed  scales.  Shallow,  hori- 
zontal, and  ring-like  fissures  sometimes  almost  encircle  trunk.  See  Fig.  67. 

TWIGS — Usually  slender  except  in  sprouts,  rather  brittle,  yellowish-green  or  sometimes  red- 
dish, somewhat  hairy,  often  smooth  and  glossy,  aromatic,  brittle,  fall  off  young,  covered  with 
few  lenticels,  contain  large  white  pith.  Inner  bark  of  twigs  is  very  mucilaginous  upon  being 
chewed.  Sprouts  branch  freely  and  seedlings  more  sparingly. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  bud  present,  large  1/3-3/5  of  an  inch  long,  ovate,  sharp-pointed, 
covered  with  a  few  rather  loose-fitting,  slightly  hairy  green  bud-scales  with  thickened  veins. 
A  few,  usually  3,  rather  thick,  loose,  short,  narrow  scales  surround  terminal  bud.  Lateral 
buds  are  smaller,  gaping,  and  somewhat  divergent. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  ovate,  4-6  inches  long,  a^ute  at  apex,  wedge-shaped  at  base, 
entire  or  2-5-lobed,  usually  smooth  and  dark  green  above  and  paler  below.  Entire,  2-lobefl, 
3-lobed,  and  5-lobed  ones  may  be  found  on  same  branch. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alterncte,  small,  raised,  semi-elliptical  or  concave,  with  a  single,  confluent, 
linear  bundle-scar. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  with  the  leaves.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  are  separate. 
They  are  greenish-yellow  and  arranged  in  loose  drooping  racemes. 

FRUIT — A  dark  bluo,  shiny  drupe  borne  on  a  bright  red,  club-shaped,  fleshy  stem  terminated 
by  an  enlarged  calyx  in  which  the  drupe  rests.  Falls  rather  early,  rarely  persistent. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  indistinct  medullary  rays;  soft,  very  brittle,  durable  in  contact 
with  soil,  aromatic,  dull-orange  brown,  with  thin  light  sapwood.  Weighs  31.42  Ibs.  per  cubic 
foot.  Used  for  posts,  rails,  furniture,  interior  finishings.  Often  sold  as  Ash  and  Chestnut. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Sassafras,  also  known  as  Saxifrax,  and  Sassafrac, 
can  be  distinguished  at  any  time  of  the  year  by  its  very  smooth  glossy  bark  of  the  twigs  which 
is  decidedly  mucilaginous  and  aromatic.  The  leaves  which  may  be  entire,  or  2-5-lobed  and 
the  single  bundle-scar  in  the  leaf-scars  are  also  characteristic.  The  fruit,  the  rough  and 
distinctively  fissured  bark,  and  the  brittle  lateral  branches  are  peculiar  to  this  species. 
Om-e  recognized  it  is  hard  to  confuse  it  with  another  species. 

RANGE — Massachusetts  to  Florida  and   west  to  Michigan,   Kansas,    and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Rather  common  in  the  eastern,  southern,  and  western 
parts  of  the  State.  Rarer  in  the  central  and  northern  or  mountainous  parts. 

HABITAT — Very  common  along  fence  rows,  in  abandoned  fields!  and  on  abandoned  charcoal 
hearths.  Prefers  rich  sandy  loam.  Rather* tolerant  of  shade  and  water. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Sassafras  is  of  little  commercial  importance  in  this 
State  on  account  of  its  limited  distribution  and  the  small  size  which  it  reaches.  It  is  a 
rather  picturesque  trae,  especially  in  winter.  The  fruit  furnishes  a  valuable  food  for  birds 
while  the  wood,  bark,  and  especially  the  roots,  yield  an  aromatic  oil  extensively  used  to- 
flavor  medicine  and  candy,  and  to  perfume  soaps. 


11 


162 


WITCH-HAZEL. 
Hamamelis  virginiana,  Linnaeus. 

FAMILY  AND  GENUS  DESCRIPTION— The  Witch-hazel  family,  Hamamelidaceae,  contains 
about  16  genera  with  LO  species  of  which  number  only  2  genera  have  tree  representatives  in 
North  America.  The  2  genera  are  Hamamelis  and  Liquidambar.  Bach  genus  is  represented  by 
a  single  species,  both  native  to  Pennsylvania.  The  genus  Hamamelis  comprises  3  species,  2 
of  which  are  found  in  eastern  Asia  and  1  described  here. 

FORM — A  small  tree  or  shrub  sometimes  reaching  a  height  of  25  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  14 
inches,  but  usually  smaller.  Trunk  short,  bears  numerous  spreading,  crooked  branches  which 
form  a  broad  open  head. 

BARE — About  1/5  of  an  inch  thick,  light  brown,  somewhat  mottled  with  light  blotches;  when 
young  smooth,  later  scaly.  Inner  bark  reddish-purple  in  color.  Used  for  medicine,  extract, 
and  gargles. 

TWIGS — Zigzag,  light  brown,  with  small  light  green  pith,  rather  slender,  often  downy  or 
scurfy  especially  near  the  end,  sometimes  smooth  and  shiny,  covered  with  a  few,  scattered, 
white  lenticels. 

BUDS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  flattish,  sometimes  curved  or  falcate,  covered  with  scale-like 
undeveloped  leaves  bearing  dense  brown  hairs.  Terminal  buds  usually  sickle-shaped,  about 
1-i  of  an  inch  long.  Lateral  buds  few  and  very  small. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  oval,  4-6  inches  long,  rounded  or  sometimes  acute  at  apex, 
oblique  at  base,  dentate  on  margin,  dark  green  above,  paler  beneath;  midrib  and  primary 
veins  prominent. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  semi-circular  in  outline  with  a  raised  margin,  and  contain 
3  single  or  often  compound  bundle-scars  which  are  lighter  in  color  than  the  dark  brown  surface 
of  the  leaf-scar. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  October  and  November.  Bright  yellow,  perfect,  occur  in  small  axillary 
clusters,  surrounded  by  a  scale-like  3-leaved  involucre.  Buds  which  produce  the  flowers  occur 
in  clusters  of  3  on  short  stalks,  are  spherical  in  form,  and  start  to  develop  about  August  in  the 
axils  of  the  leaves. 

FRUIT — Ripens  in  October  and  November  at  the  same  time  that  the  blossoms  appear.  It 
results  from  blossoms  of  the  previous  year,  consists  of  a  yellowish-brown  woody  pod  with  two 
cells  in  which  shiny  black  seeds  are  produced.  The  woody  pods  burst  open  when  ripe,  and 
propel  the  seed  for  5  or  more  feet. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  not  very  distinct;  little  difference  between  spring  and  summer 
wood;  hard,  close-grained,  light  brown.  Weighs  42.5  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Not  used  com- 
mercially. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Witch-hazel  can  be  distinguished  in  winter  by 
its  sickle-shaped,  brown,  terminal  buds,  its  yellowish-brown  fruit  in  the  form  of  a  woody  pod 
with  two  cells,  its  persistent  remnants  of  the  flowers  on  stalks  and  its  white  blotched  or  mottled 
light  brown  bark.  In  late  autumn  the  flowers  with  strap-like  yellow  petals  are  characteristic. 
The  alternate  oval  leaves  with  straight  veins  and  oblique  bases  are  also  distinctive.  It  usually 
frequents  moist  rocky  locations. 

RANGE — Nova  Scotia  and   Ontario,   south  to  Florida,    and  west  to  Minnesota  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— No  doubt  found  in  every  county  of  the  State.  Reported 
and  observed  in  more  than  one-half  of  the  counties,  located  in  every  part  of  the  State.  This 
is  the  most  common  and  widely  distributed  small  tree  or  shrub  in  Pennsylvania. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  in  moist  rocky  situations.  Common  along  streams,  in  swamps,  and 
on  the  borders  of  ponds  and  lakes.  Occasionally  ascends  slopes  to  rather  dry  locations.  Tolerant 
of  shade,  hence  ofteu  found  in  the  understory  §f  the  forest. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  is  of  no  commercial  importance  because  it 
remains  too  small  and  produces  inferior  wood.  No  records  are  available  which  show  that  a 
single  board,  foot  has  ever  been  on  the  market.  It  is,  however,  a  very  interesting  small  tree 
because  it  holds  a  unique  position  in  that  it  blossoms  late  in  autumn  when  many  other  trees 
have  shed  their  leaves  and  are  prepared  for  winter.  It  may  be  protected  in  situations  where  it 
does  not  interfere  with  the  growth  or  utilization  of  more  valuable  species.  No  special  efforts 
are  necessary  to  insure  an  abundant  future  supply. 


PLATE  LXXXII.     WITCH-HAZEL. 

1.  A  flowering  and  fruiting  branch,   x  \. 

2.  Longitudinal     section     of     a     flower,     enlarged. 

3.  A  fruit,    natural   size. 

4.  A   branch   with    mature   leaves,    x   \. 

5.  A   winter   twig,    natural   size. 

6.  Section  of  a   winter   branch,    enlarged. 


PLATE  LXXXIII.     SWEET  GUM. 


1.  A  flowering  branch  showing  immature  leaves, 

(a)  staminate  flowers,   (p)  pistillate  flowers, 

2.  A  branch  with  mature  leaves,  x  J. 

3.  A  spherical  fruit,    x  5. 


4.  A  winter  twig,   x  i. 
6.  Section   of  a   winter   twig,    enlarged. 
6.  Section  of  a   branch  with   corky   projections, 
x  i. 


163 


SWEET  GUM. 

Liquidambar  Stryaciflua,  Linnaeus. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — This  genus  comprises  3  species,  2  of  which  are  found  in  Asia  and 
1  in  North  America.  The  latter  is  native  to  a  small  portion  of  southeastern  Pennsylvania. 
A  few  fossil  forms  are  also  known.  The  generic  name,  Liquidambar,  is  a  mongrel,  the  fore 
part  of  which  is  of  Latin  origin  and  means  liquid  and  the  latter  part  of  Arabic  origin  and  means 
amber  in  allusion  to  the  fragrant  juice  of  the  tree. 

FORM — A  large  forest  tree  usually  from  50-75  ft.  high  with  a  diameter  of  2-3  ft.,  but  may  reach 
a  heignt  of  150  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4-5  feet.  In  the  forest  the  trunk  is  tall,  clean,  slightly 
tapering,  and  bears  a  narrow  head.  In  open  grown  trees  the  trunk  is  short,  bearing  rather 
regular  spreading  branches  which  form  a  symmetrical  and  rather  conical  crown. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  grayish-brown,  1-li  inches  thick,  deeply  furrowed  separating  broad  scaly 
ridges.  On  younger  trunks  thinner  and  dark  gray. 

TWIGS — Rather  stout,  obscurely  angular,  at  first  rusty  hairy,  later  smooth,  light  brown  to 
dark  reddish- brown,  roughened  by  raised  leaf-scars  and  scattered,  dark,  raised  lenticels  and  after 
the  second  season  oftea  by  corky-winged  projections  of  the  bark.  Pith  rather  large,  angular, 
and  very  light  brown. 

BUDS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  ovate  to  conical,  blunt-pointed  to  sharp-pointed,  glossy, 
rich  -reddish-brown,  fragrant  when  crushed,  covered  with  about  6  visible  ovate  scales  which 
have  a  short-pointed  apex,  downy  margin,  and  a  rounded  back.  Lateral  buds  are  sometimes 
accessory. 

LEAVES— Alternate,  simple,  star-shaped,  3-5  inches  long,  broader  than  long;  base  at  right 
angles  to  stalk  or  slightly  heart-shaped;  margin  serrate,  with  5-7  sharp-pointed  divisions;  when 
mature  bright  green  and  shiny  above,  paler  below.  Leaf-stalks  long  and  round. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  raised,  slightly  inclined  to  twig,  crescent- 
shaped  or  broadly  heart-shaped,  with  a  dark  surface,  containing  3  circular  bundle-scars  which 
.are  white  on  the  periphery  and  dark  in  the  center. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April  when  leaves  are  partly  developed.  S laminate  flowers  green, 
borne  in  terminal  racemes,  2-3  inches  long,  covered  with  rusty  hairs.  Pistillate  flowers  green, 
occur  in  heads  borne  on  long  stalks  originating  in  the  axils  of  leaves. 

FRUIT — A  long-stalked  spherical  head  made  up  of  many  capsules  which  have  a  spiny  appear- 
ance, about  1-1J  inches  in  diameter,  persists  far  into  winter.  Individual  capsules  often  filled 
with  sawdust-like  material  which  consists  of  abortive  seeds. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  distinct;  rather  heavy,  hard,  with  interlocked  grain,  somewhat 
difficult  to  work,  reddish-brown  with  dark  streaks,  sapwood  wide  and  white.  Weighs  36.83  Ibs. 
per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  boxes,  crates,  furniture,  interior  finish,  and  extensively  as  a  substi- 
tute for  Circassian  Walnut. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Sweet  Gum,  also  known  as  Bilsted,  Red  Gum, 
and  Liquidambar,  can  be  recognized  by  its  fruit  which'  is  in  the  form  of  a  spine-like  head 
suspended  on  a  long  slender  stalk.  The  fruit  often  persists  far  into  winter.  The  corky-winged 
projections  on  the  bark  of  the  branchlets  are  also  characteristic.  The  Bur  Oak,  a  native  species, 
and  the  Cork  Elm,  an  introduced  species,  also  have  this  characteristic.  The  star-shaped  leaves, 
reddish-brown  twigs,  aud  leaf-scars  with  their  bundle-scars  are  distinctive.  It  is  native  only 
to  the  extreme  southeastern  part  of  the  State,  but  rather  commonly  planted  in  other  parts. 

RANGE — Southern  Connecticut  south  to  Florida  and  west  to  Ohio,  Missouri,  and  Texas,  and 
southward  to  Guatemala. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  only  in  the  extreme  southeastern  part  of  the 
State.  Reported  from  Bucks,  Philadelphia,  and  Delaware  counties. 

HABITAT — It  prefers  deep  rich  soil  such  as  will  produce  White  Oak,  Hickory,  and  Yellow 
Poplar.  Does  not  tolerate  shade,  hence  almost  invariably  found  in  the  open  or  in  even-aged 
stands.  On  account  of  its  intolerance  one  seldom  finds  it  as  regeneration  on  the  forest  floor. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  attains  a  large  size  and  produces  fairly  valuable 
wood  but  it  usually  requires  soil  adapted  to  agriculture  or  which  will  grow  more  valuable  trees 
such  as  White  Oak,  White  Ash,  Hickory,  and  Yellow  Poplar.  It  hardly  pays  to  propagate  this 
species  artificially  in  this,  State  and  it  is  too  limited  in  its  distribution  to  regenerate  it  by 
natural  means.  It  la  a  very  attractive  ornamental  tree. 


164 

THE  KOSE  FAMILY— KOSACEAE. 

This  is  one  of  the  largest  families  of  plants.  It  comprises  about 
100  genera  with  about  1,500  species,  many  representatives  of  which 
are  native  to  North  America.  The  flora  of  Pennsylvania  comprises 
about  30  genera  with  more  than  100  species. 

The  members  of  this  family  comprise  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs. 
They  have  a  world-wide  distribution.  A  few  of  the  trees  are  impor- 
tant on  account  of  the  timber  which  they  produce  while  many  are 
important  on  account  of  the  valuable  fruit  which  they  yield.  .  Most 
of  our  common  and  well-known  fruit  trees  belong  to  this  family. 
Many  of  its  shrubs  are  common  and  most  attractive. 

The  leaves  of  the  representatives  of  this  family  are  simple  or  com- 
pound and  always  alternate,  never  opposite.  The  flowers  are  per- 
fect, showy,  and  open  in  spring  or  early  summer.  Many  species  have 
very  fragrant  and  attractive  flowers.  The  fruit  matures  in  one  sea- 
son and  is  variable  in  form  and  structure.  It  may  be, in  the  form  of 
achenes,  follicles,  pomes,  or  drupes.  'Some  species  like  the  Cherries, 
Plums,  and  Peaches  have  fruits  which  are  edible  and  well  known. 
Their  pulp  is  usually  juicy,  sweet  or  bitter,  sometimes  astringent, 
and  covers  a  hard-shelled  round  or  flat  seed.  On  account  of  the 
palatable  nature  of  most  of  the  fruits  they  are  readily  eaten  by  man, 
birds,  and  wild  animals.  The  seeds  are  not  injured  by  passing 
through  the  alimentary  canal  of  animals  and  hence  may  be  thus 
widely  dispersed.  The  wood  in  many  species  is  valuable  but  in  our 
flora  all  but  one  species  remain  too  small  to  be  of  any  commercial 
value. 

Of  the  large  number  of  genera  and  species  found  in  Pennsylvania 
only  9  species  belonging  to  4  different  genera  are  described  below. 
In  addition  to  these  a  few  other  genera  have  well-known  representa- 
tives. The  Mnebark  (Physocarpus  opulifolius,  (I*)  Maxim.),  is  a 
common  shrub  throughout  the  State  along  rocky  banks  of  streams. 
It  is  the  only  representative  of  its  genus  in  Pennsylvania.  The 
Strawberries  belonging  to  the  genus  Fragaria  have  a  few  common 
representatives.  The  Raspberries,  Blackberries,  and  Dewberries,  be- 
longing to  the  genus  Rubus,  have  about  20  species  native  to  this 
State.  The  Wild  Roses,  belonging  to  the  genus  Rosa,  have  at  least 
7  species  native  to  the  State.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  many 
herbaceous  species. 

KEY  TO  THE  GENERA. 

Page. 
1.    Unbranched  thorns  piesent  on  twigs,   situate  at  the  nodes Crataegns        170 

1.  Thorns    not    present    on    twigs,     ; ....2 

2.  Fruit    a    drupe;     pistil    one;     twig     with     characteristic     taste      and      odor,      usually 

covered     with     horizontally-elongated     leriticels, ....Prunus 165 

2.  Fruit   a  pome;    pistils   more   than   one   usually   3-5;    twigs   with   a   different    character- 

istic   taste,     without    horizontally -elongated    lenticels 3 

3.  Cavities  of  the  ovary  same  number  as   the  styles;   buds  not  narrow-conical  and   not 

grcenish-j  cllow Pyrus        172 

3.    Cavities  of  the  ovary  becoming  twice  the  number  of  the  styles;   buds  narrow-conical 

and   greenish-yellow Amelanchier        174 


1C5 


THE  PLUMS  AND  CHERRIES— PRUNUS,    (Tourn.)   Linnaeus. 

This  genus  comprises  about  90  species  well  distributed  over  the 
north  temperate  zone  and  locally  in  the  tropics.  A  large  number 
of  the  representatives  are  found  in  North  America.  Seven  species 
are  native  to  Pennsylvania  and  4  foreign  species  have  been  extensively 
naturalized.  Only  4  of  the  native  species  are  described  on  the  fol- 
lowing pages.  The  other  native  species  are  Porter's  Plum  (Prunus 
alleghaniensis),  found  near  Birmingham,  Huntingdon  county,  Ap- 
palachian Cherry  (Prunus  cuneata),  and  the  Sand  Cherry  (Prunus 
pumila). 

Among  the  introduced  species  which  have  been  cultivated  exten- 
sively are  the  Domestic  or  Sweet  Cherry  (Prunus  avium),  the  Sour 
Cherry  (Prunus  Cerasus),  the  Perfumed  Cherry  (Prunus  Mahaleb), 
and  the  Peach  (Prunus  Persica).  The  latter  was  introduced  from 
Asia  and  the  others  from  Europe. 


SUMMER  KEY  TO  THE   SPECIES. 

Page. 

1.    Flowers  in  racemes  terminating  leafy  branches,   hence  appearing  after  the  leaves, ....2 

1.  Flowers  in  umbels  developing  from  lateral  buds  before  or  with  the  leaves,    3 

2.  Leaves     thickish,     oblong     or     oblong-lanceolate,     taper-pointed,     serrate    with     short 

incurved    stout    teeth;    inner    bark    aromatic,     P.    serotina         166 

2.  Leaves   rather  thin,    oval   to  obovate,    short-pointed,    very   sharply    serrate   with    some- 

what spreading  slender  teeth;  inner  bark  with  a  rank  disagreeble  odor,  P.  virginiana         167 

3.  Flowers  small;    fruit  small,    borne   in   clusters;    branches   not   thorny   or   armed, 

P.    penn sylvan ica          168 
3.    Flowers  large;  fruit  large  borne  singly;  branches  often  thorny  or  armed,   P.  americana         169 


WINTER  KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES. 

1.    Terminal    buds    absent,     -. P.     americana         169 

1.  Terminal    buds    present,     2 

2.  Buds  clustered  at  the  tips  of  the  twigs;  twigs  rather  slender  usually  less  than  1/16 

of  an  inch  in  thickness P.   pennsylvanica        168 

2.  Buds   rarely  clustered  and   if  clustered  only  on  stubby  lateral  spurs;    twigs  relatively 

stout,  usually  over  1/16  of  an  inch  in  thickness 3 

J.    Medium    to   large    tree;    bark   on   old    trunks   black    and    rough;    buds    relatively    small 

with   uniformly-colored   scales    sharp-pointed    at    apex,    P.    serotina        166 

3.  Small   tree   to   shrub;    bark   on   old   trunks   brown   and    rather   smooth;    buds    relatively 

large  with  grayish- margined  scales  rounded  at  the  apex, P.  virginiana        167 


166 


WILD  BLACK  CHERRY. 

Prunus  serotina,  Ehrhart. 

FORM — Usually  reaches  a  height  of  50-75  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2-3  ft.,  but  may  attain 
a  height  or  110  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  5  feet.  In  forest  grown  specimens  the  trunk  is  usually 
long,  clean,  and  with  little  taper,  while  in  open  grown  specimens  it  is  usually  short.  Crown 
rather  irregularly-oblong. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  (Pig.  96)  rather  smooth,  glossy,  reddish-brown,  marked  with 
conspicuous  white  horizontally-elongated  lenticels;  peels  off  in  thin  film-like  layers,  and  exposes 
greenish  inner  bark.  On  old  trunks  (Fig.  97)  blackish,  roughened  by  thick  irregular  plates 
with  projecting  edges. 

TWIGS — Smooth,  rather  slender,  reddish-brown,  marked  with  numerous,  pale,  round  lenticels 
which  in  time  become  horizontally-elongated;  pith  white  or  light  brown.  Often  covered  with 
a  thin,  film-like,  grayish  coating  which  rubs  off  readily.  Inner  bark  has  a  characteristic  bitter 
taste  and  a  rather  pleasant  odor. 

BUDS — Alternate,  about  1/8-1/6  of  an  inch  long,  ovate,  usually  sharp -pointed,  smooth,  glossy, 
reddish-brown,  covered  by  about  4  visible  ovate  bud-scales  which  are  sometimes  coated  with  a 
smoky  or  grayish  film-like  skin.  Lateral  bud?  usually  divergent  but  sometimes  appressed, 
flattened,  and  larger  than  the  terminal. 

LEAVES— Alternate,  simple,  oblong  or  lanceolate-oblong,  2-5  inches  long,  tapering  or  rounded 
at  base,  taper-pointed  at  apex,  serrate  on  margin  with  short  incurved  teeth,  rather  thick 
and  shiny  above,  paler  beneath. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  raised  on  projections  of  the  twig,  semi- 
elliptical  tendency  in  outline,  with  3  bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  May  or  June;  white,  perfect,  about  i  of  an  inch  across,  borne  in 
elongated  drooping  racemes  3-4  inches  long. 

FRTJ1T — A  purplish -black  Juicy  drupe,  $-}  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  arranged  in  rather  open 
drooping  clusters;  seed  stony.  Matures  in  summer. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  very  distinct;  heartwood  reddish-brown;  sapwood  narrow  and 
yellowish;  moderately  heavy,  hard  and  strong,  fine-grained,  does  not  warp  or  split  in  seasoning. 
Young  wood  is  very  durable,  its  value  is  due  to  color  and  lustre  and  not  to  figure.  Weighs 
36.28  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  principally  in  furniture  and  finish;  also  used  for  tools  like 
spirit  levels,  implements,  patterns,  cores,  and  for  high  class  panels. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Wild  Black  Cherry,  also  known  as  Wild 
Cherry,  Rum  Cherry,  Black  Cherry,  and  Cabinet  Cherry,  may  be  distinguished  from  our  other 
native  species  by  its  larger  size  and  by  the  rough,  dark,  scaly  bark  which  is  found  on  the 
older  trunks.  For  furthor  distinguishing  characteristics  see  Choke  Cherry,  page  167,  and 
Fire  Cherry,  page  168.  The  introduced  Domestic  Cherry  (Prunus  avium)  can  be  distinguished 
from  this  one  by  its  stouter  often  grayish  twigs,  its  smoother  and  shiny  bark  (Fig.  98)  with 
conspicuous  long  and  high  lenticels  and  its  clustered  buds  at  the  tips  of  stubby,  lateral,  spur- 
like  branches.  The  fruit  of  the  Domestic  Cherry  is  larger  than  that  of  our  native  cherries 
and  the  leaves  have  rounded  teeth  often  with  glands  and  are  frequently  slightly  pubescent 
on  the  lower  side. 

RANGE — Nova  Scotia  south  to  Florida,  westward  to  South  Dakota,   Kansas,  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  throughout  the  State.  Rather  common  but 
nowhere  very  abundant.  Usually  occurs  solitary  in  mixture  with  other  species. 

HABITAT — Thrives  best  on  rich  alluvial  soil  and  fertile  slopes.  It  will  grow  on  dry  and 
often  rather  sterile  slopes.  On  account  of  its  long  tap-root  It  requires  loose  deep  soil. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— This  is  a  very  important  timber  tree.  Its  wood  is  valuable 
especially  for  furniture  and  interior  finish.  Nowhere  in  its  range  has  it  ever  been  very  abundant 
and  on  account  of  its  prized  wood  it  has  been  cut  extensively.  As  a  consequence  it  is  now  becom- 
ing rare,  iii  fact  marching  towards  extinction.  It  deserves  to  be  planted  extensively  and  to 
be  protected  carefully  where  it  is  found  growing  naturally. 


PLATE  LXXXIV.  WILD  BLACK  CHERRY. 

1.  Section  of  a  dowering  branch,    x  J. 

2.  A   fruiting   branch,    x   J. 

3.  Section   of   a   fruit,    enlarged. 

4.  A   winter   twig,    natural  size. 

5.  Section   of   a   winter   twig,    enlarged. 


PLATE  LXXXV.     CHOKE  CHERRY, 

1.  A  flowering  branch,   x  \. 

2.  A  fruiting   branch,    x   i, 

3.  Section  of  a  fruit,    enlarged. 

4.  A  winter  twig,    natural  size. 

5.  Section   of   a   winter   twig,    enlarged. 


167 


CHOKE  CHERRY. 

Primus  virginiana,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — A  small  tree  rarely  exceeding  25  ft.  in  height  with  a  diameter  of  8  inches.  It  reaches 
its  largest  size  in  the  southern  part  of  its  geographical  range. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  smooth,  shiny,  brownish,  peels  off  easily  in  thin  film-like  layers 
and  exposes  the  green  inner  bark.  On  older  trunks  about  2/5  of  an  inch  thick,  dark  grayish, 
slightly  roughened  by  shallow  fissures.  Inner  layers  of  the  bark  have  a  very  disagreeable  odor. 

TWIGS — Rather  stout,  usually  smooth,  light  brown  to  reddish -brown,  covered  with  numerous, 
conspicuous,  dull  yellowish  lenticels  which  are  not  evidently  horizontally-elongated;  pith  white. 
Bruised  twigs  have  a  disagreeable  odor. 

BUDS — Alternate,  about  1/6  of  an  inch  long,  conical  to  ovate,  smooth,  sharp-pointed,  brownish, 
covered  with  about  G-8  visible  and  closely  overlapping  scales.  Lateral  buds  are  often  rather 
divergent  and  larger  than  the  terminal. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  oval,  oblong  or  obovate,  2-4  inches  long,  tapering  or  rounded  at 
base,  abruptly  pointed  at  apex,  sharply  serrate  on  margin  with  slender  teeth,  rather  thin, 
bright  green  above,  paler  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  somewhat  raised  on  projections  of  twigs 
with  a  tendency  to  become  elliptical  in  outline.  Bundle-scars  3  in  number. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  the  leaves  are  fully  developed.  They  are  perfect,  white, 
J-4  of  an  inch  across,  arranged  in  many-flowered  drooping  racemes,  3-6  inches  long. 

FRUIT — A  red  to  -lark  crimson  juicy  drupe,  about  J  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  arranged  in  rather 
open  drooping  clusters.  Seed  smooth  and  stony.  Fruit  is  harsh  and  astringent. 

WOOD — Similar  to  that  of  the  Wild  Black  Cherry,  only  heavier  and  of  no  commercial  im- 
portance. Not  found  on  the  market.  Weighs  43.32  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Choke  Cherry  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
Wild  Black  Cherry  by  its  smaller  size,  smoother  and  browner  outer  bark  and  an  inner  bark 
M-ith  a  mere  disagreeable  odor,  as  well  as  by  its  thinner  and  sharper  serrate  leaves  with. 
somewhat  spreading  slender  teeth.  The  leaves  of  the  Wild  Black  Cherry  are  thicker  and  moder- 
ately serrate  with  somewhat  spreading  slender  teeth.  The  buds  of  the  Wild  Black  Cherry  are 
smaller  and  have  rather  uniformly-colored  scales  with  a  sharp  apex  while  the  buds  of  this 
species  have  grayish-margined  scales  with  a  rounded  apex.  This  tree  can  be  distinguished  from 
the  Fire  Cherry  by  the  absence  of  clustered  terminal  buds,  by  its  stouter  twigs,  and  by  Its 
flowers  which  are  borne  in  a  raceme  while  those  of  the  Fire  Cherry  are  borne  In  umbels. 
It  can  be  distinguished  from  both  the  Wild  Black  Cherry  and  the  Fire  Cherry  by  Its  buff- 
colored  lenticels  which  do  not  elongate  horizontally. 

RANGE — Newfoundland   to  Manitoba,    southward  to  Georgia   and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Locally  throughout  the  State  but  nowhere  abundant. 
Most  common  in  the  mountainous  and  southeastern  parts. 

HABITAT — Frequently  found  in  thickets,  in  open  woods,  along  fences,  in  abandoned  fields, 
along  streams,  and  on  dry  situations. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— This  tree  is  of  no  commercial  importance.  It  is  rather 
attractive  in  its  natural  habitat  and  when  artificially  planted.  Even  though  it  has  no  commer- 
cial value  still  it  need  not  be  regarded  as  an  objectionable  forest  weed  because  it  interferes 
little  with  the  growth  of  other  trees  or  their  utilization. 


168 


FIRE  CHERRY. 

Primus  pennsylvanica,  Linnaeus. 


FORM— A  small  tree  reaching  a  height  of  30  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  about  10  inches.  Trunk 
usually  short  bearing  rather  ascending  branches  which  form  a  narrow  and  rather  flat-topped 
crown. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  somewhat  roughened  but  not  fissured.  On  younger  trunks  about  }  of  an 
inch  thick,  reddish-brown,  rather  smooth  but  roughened  by  large  horizontally-elongated  lenticels. 
The  outer  bark  peels  off  readily  in  thin  film-like  layers  and  exposes  the  green  inner  bark 
which  is  bitter. 

TWIGS — Slender,  smooth,  glossy,  bright  red,  sometimes  wholly  or  partly  covered  with  a 
thin  grayish  coating  which  rubs  off  very  readily,  marked  with  numerous  pale  to  yellowish  and 
conspicuous  lenticels  which  in  time  become  horizontally-elongated.  The  twigs  have  a  character- 
istic bitter  taste  and  a  peculiar  odor. 

BUDS — Alternate,  small,  usually  less  than  J  of  an  inch  long,  ovate,  dull-pointed,  smooth 
or  slightJy  grayish,  scaly,  clustered  at  the  end  of  twigs  and  often  along  the  sides;  covered 
with  scales  which  are  bard  to  distinguish.  They  are  sometimes  clustered  on  stubby  lateral 
s.purs. 

LEAVES — Alternate  or  sometimes  paired  but  not  opposite  each  other,  simple,  oblong-lanceo- 
late, 3-5  inches  long,  tapering  or  rounded  at  base,  sharp-pointed  at  apex,  sharply  and  finely 
serrate  on  margin,  rather  shining,  green  and  smooth  on  both  sides. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  somewhat  raised  on  projections  of  twigs, 
elongated,  semi-elliptical  in  outline,  with  3  bundle-scars,  the  central  one  of  which  is  usually  the 
largest. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  when  leaves  are  partly  developed.  They  are  white,  perfect, 
about  5  of  an  inch  across,  borne  on  long  stalks  in  4-5-flowered  umbels. 

FRUIT — A  globular,  juicy,  light  red  drupe  about  J  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  tipped  with  parts 
of  persistent  styles,  covered  with  thin  skin  which  contains  sour  flesh  and  oblong  stone.  Ripens 
about  July. 

WOOD — Similar  to  that  of  the  Wild  Black  Cherry,  page  166,  only  lighter  in  weight  and 
of  no  eomrtifcrcial  importance.  Not  found  on  the  market.  Weighs  31.30  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Fire  Cherry,  also  known  as  Wild  Red,  Bird, 
and  Pin  Cherry,  can  be  distinguished  from  Wild  Black  Cherry  and  Choke  Cherry  by  its  flowers 
which  are  borne  in  umbels  while  those  of  the  other  species  are  borne  in  racemes,  and  by 
its  slender  twigs  bearing  clustered  terminal  buds  while  those  of  the  other  species  occur 
solitary.  The  bark  can  be  distinguished  from  the  Choke  Cherry  by  the  presence  of  numerous 
orange-colored  horizontally -elongated  lenticels  and  from  the  Wild  Black  Cherry  by  the  absence 
of  dark  scaly  plates  with  projecting  edges. 

RANGE — Newfoundland   to   British   Columbia,    southward    to   Georgia,    Tennessee,    and   Colorado. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Common  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  State, 
particularly  among  the  Alleghenies.  Rare  or  absent  southeast  of  a  line  drawn  from  Easton 
through  Hairisburg  to  Chambersburg.  Also  rare  in  the  western  part  of  the  State. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  in  rocky  woods  and  recent  clearings.  Very  common  along  fences 
and  roadsides,  in  abandoned  fields,  on  lumbered  and  burnt-over  areas,  on  mountain  slopes  and 
occasionally  found  on  bottomlands. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  tree  is  of  no  commercial  importance.  It  is  very 
attractive  but  its  short  life  prevents  it  from  being  planted  extensively  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. It  is  rather  aggressive  springing  up  rapidly  after  fires  and  lumbering  operations,  often 
taking  complete  control  of  the  situation.  It  is,  however,  a  temporary  species  acting  as  a 
shelter  or  nurse  tree  to  other  more  valuable  species  which  usually  follow  and  form  the  desired 
forest  stand.  The  main  value  of  this  tree  lies  in  the  shelter  which  it  gives  to  others  and  the 
food  which  it  furnishes  for  birds  and  wild  animals. 


PLATE  LXXXVI.     FIRE  CHERRY. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,   x  i. 

2.  A  fruiting  branch  with  mature  leaves,  z  i. 

3.  Section  of  a  fruit,    enlarged. 

4.  A  winter  twig,   natural  size. 

5.  Section  of   a   winter   twig,    enlarged. 


PLATE  LXXXVII.     WILD  PLUM. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,  x  J. 

2.  A  fruiting  branch,    x  \, 

3.  Section  of  a  fruit,    natural  size. 

4.  A  winter  twig,    x  i. 

5.  Section  of  a   winter   twig,    enlarged. 


169 


WILD  PLUM. 
Primus  americana,  Marshall. 

FORM — A  small  tree  from  9-30  ft.  high  with  a  diameter  of  6-12  inches.  Trunk  short,  bearing 
many  wide-spreading,  often  drooping  branches  forming  a  deep  and  rather  broad  crown. 

BARK — At  first  with  a  smooth  grayish-brown  bark,  later  becoming  rough  like  the  Wild 
Cherry  by  breaking  up  into  thin  dark  brown  plates. 

TWIGS — Bather  stout,  at  first  hairy  and  light  green,  later  smooth  and  reddish-brown,  covered 
with  a  few  roundish  Ifcuticels.  Twigs  often  bear  numerous  spur-like  spines. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  one  absent;  about  J  of  an  inch  long,  broadly  conical,  sharp- 
pointed,  brown,  covered  with  numerous  triangular  scales  which  are  pale  and  hairy  along  the 
margin. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  1J-4  Inche's  long,  narrowly-obovate,  taper-pointed  at  apex, 
usually  rounded  at  base,  sharply  and  doubly  serrate  on  margin,  firm,  dark  green,  and  rough 
above,  palor  and  hairy  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  broadly  crescent-shaped,  with  3  conspicuous 
bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS— Appear  about  May  when  the  leaves  are  i  developed.  They  are  perfect,  white, 
1  inch  across,  occur  on  slender  smooth  stalks  arranged  in  2-5-flowered  umbels. 

FRUIT — Matures  in  late  summer  or  early  autumn.  It  is  a  subglobose  drupe  becoming  red 
at  full  maturity,  about  1  inch  in  diameter,  with  a  thick  tough  skin  and  a  flattened  oval  stone. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  herd,  heavy,  strong,  close-grained,  reddish-brown,  shiny,  with  thin 
sapwood.  Weighs  about  16  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Wild  Plum  also  known  as  the  Wild  Yellow 
Plum  and  Red  Plum,  can  be  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  this  genus  here  described 
by  the  absence  of  a  terminal  bud,  by  the  characteristic  bitter  aromatic  taste  of  the  twigs 
and  by  its  red  globose  fruit  about  1  inch  in  diameter,  covered  with  a  thick  tough  skin  and 
containing  a  smooth  oval  flattened  stone.  Another  species  of  Plum  known  as  Porter's  Plum  or 
Sloe  (Prunas  alleghaaieusis),  is  native  to  this  State.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  purple  fruit 
which  is  usually  covered  with  a  bloom,  rarely  over  |  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  seldom  spiny. 

RANGE — New  York  south  to  Florida,  westward  to  Montana,  Colorado,  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  locally  throughout  the  State.  Most  common  in 
the  southeastern  and  southern  parts,  present  but  rarer  in  other  parts. 

HABITAT — Prefers  rather  moist  rich  soil.  Common  along  banks  of  streams  and  borders  of 
woods. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  small  tree  is  of  no  commercial  importance  on  account 
of  the  timber  which  it  produces,  but  it  forms  an  excellent  stock  upon  which  to  graft  the 
Domestic  Plum.  It  responds  very  readily  to  the  attention  which  a  gardener  may  give  to  it. 
The  fruit  is  used  for  preserves  and  jellies.  It  is  attractive  ornamentally  on  account  of  its 
fine  form,  beautiful  foliage,  and  profusion  of  attractive  flowers. 


170 


COCKSPUR  THORN. 

Crataegus  Crus-galli,  Linnaeus. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — The  genus  Crataegus  has  the  center  of  its  distribution  in  eastern 
North  America.  It  reaches  its  best  development  in  the  great  limestone  formations  rather 
common  in  this  part  of  America.  Prior  to  1900  fewer  than  75  species  were  known  in  the  world 
of  which  number  about  30  were  native  to  North  America.  At  the  present  time  about  700 
species  of  trees  and  shrubs  belonging  to  this  genus  have  been  described.  In  the  State  of  New 
Yo-k  alone  218  species  have  been  described.  Porter  in  his  Flora  of  Pennsylvania  published 
in  1903  records  16  species  as  native  to  this  State.  Only  2  species  are  described  in  this  bulletin 
because  they  are  practically  of  no  commercial  importance  and  very  difficult  to  identify. 

FORM — A  small  tree  sometimes  reaching  a  height  of  25  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  10-12  inches. 
Trunk  short,  bearing  stout  and  spreading  branches  which  form  a  broad  and  rather  flat  crown. 

BARK — Grayish    to    reddish-brown,    sometimes    roughened    by    small    scales. 

TWIGS — Smooth,  rather  slender,  at  first  greenish,  later  light  brown  to  gray,  usually  bearing 
straight  or  slightly  curved  and  unbranched  chestnut-brown  thorns  about  3  inches  long. 

BUDS— Alternate,  i  of  an  inch  long,  often  almost  spherical,  very  blunt-pointed;  terminal 
bud  usually  present  and  about  the  same  size  as  the  laterals.  Lateral  accessory  buds  are  often 
found  at  the  base  of  a  thorn.  Buds  are  covered  with  numerous,  thick,  blunt-pointed,  chestnut- 
brown  scales. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  obovate  to  elliptical,  1-3  inches  long,  long-tapering  at  base, 
rounded  or  short-pointed  at  apex,  sharply  serrate  on  margin  except  towards  base;  smooth,  thick, 
and  shiny  on  the  upper  surface  when  full  grown.  Petioles  short  and  broad. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  small,  crescent-shaped,  containing  3  bundle- 
scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  June  when  leaves  are  fully  developed.  They  are  perfect,  white, 
about  §  of  an  inch  across  and  arranged  in  smooth  corymbs. 

FRTTIT — Ripens  about  September  but  persists  into  winter.  A  globose  or  pear-like  pome,  about 
2/5  of  an  inch  long,  greenish  or  dull  red,  with  persistent  calyx  lobes  at  apex,  containing  small 
nutlets  which  are  rounded  at  the  ends  and  2-3  grooved  on  the  back. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  very  inconspicuous;  growth  rings  variable  in  width  and  wavy; 
heavy,  hard,  reddish-brown,  close-grained.  Weighs  about  45  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for 
fence  posts  and  fuel. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Cockspur  Thorn,  sometimes  also  known  ns 
Newcastle  Thorn,  Thorn  Apple,  Thorn,  Hawthorn,  and  Haw,  can  best  be  recognized  by  its 
lone,  usually  unbranched  chestnut-brown  thorns,  its  small  nearly  spherical  buds,  its  obovate  to 
elliptical  leaves  with  short  and  flattened  petioles,  its  flowers  which  are  arranged  in  corymbs, 
and  its  bright,  scarlet,  apple-like  fruit  which  often  persists  far  into  winter. 

RANGE — Southern  Canada  southward  through  Connecticut  and  Virginia  to  northern  Georgia, 
westward  to  Michigan,  Missouri,  and  Alabama. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Common  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the 
State.  Local  in  the  other  parts. 

HABITAT — Ccmmou  on  sandy  and  gravelly  soil.     Most  frequent  on  the  foothills. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  Is  of  no  commercial  importance  as  a  forest 
tree.  It  IB,  however,  an  attractive  small  tree  which  hTls  been  planted  rather  extensively  for 
ornamental  r«rposes.  It  Is  very  variable  in  its  form,  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit.  It  has  been 
planted  as  a  hedge  and  in  some  cases  has  proved  equal  to  the  general  requirements.  The  thornp 
were  formerly  used  to  close  woolen  sacks  in  carding  mills. 


PLATE  LXXXVIII.     COCKSPUR  THORN. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,    x  I. 

2.  Longitudinal  section  of  a  flower,   natural  size. 

3.  A  fruiting  branch,   x   |. 

4.  Section  of  a  fruit,    x  £. 

5.  A  winter  twig,   natural  size.  . 

6    Section   of   a   branch   showing   thorns   with   buds   at   their  bases,    enlarged. 


PLATE  LXXXIX.     SCARLET  HAWTHORN. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,   x  i. 

2.  Longitudinal  section  of  a  flower,   natural  size. 

3.  A  fruiting  branch,  x  J. 

4.  Section  of  a  fruit,   x  J. 

5.  A  winter  twig  with  a  thorn,   x  J. 

6.  Section   of   a  winter   twig   showing   a   thorn   and   a   bud    by   its   base,    slightly   enlarged. 


171 


SCARLET  HAWTHORN. 
Crataegus  coccinea,  Linnaeus. 

FORM— A  small  tree  rarely  exceeding  a  height  of  20  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  10  Inches. 
Trunk  short,  stout,  bearing  rather  crooked  spreading  branches  which  form  a  broad  and  flat  crown. 

BARK — Rather  thin,  light  brown  to  ashy-gray,  in  time  roughened  by  shallow  fissures  sepa- 
rating small  scales. 

TWIGS — Stiff,  round  in  cross-section,  at  first  greenish,  later  reddish,  brownish  or  grayish, 
glossy,  armed  with  slender  usually  straight,  brown,  glossy  spines  about  2  inches  long. 

BUDS— Alternate,  about  i  of  an  inch  long,  often  almost  spherical,  very  blunt-pointed,  covered 
with  numerous,  thick,  blunt-pointed,  chestnut-brown  scales.  Terminal  bud  usually  presefit  and 
about  same  size  as  laterals.  Lateral  accessory  buds  are  often  found  at  the  base  of  a  thorn. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  broadly  ovate,  1-5  inches  long,  rough-pubescent,  tapering, 
rounded  or  truncate  at  base,  often  slightly  5-9-lobed  or  deeply  cut  and  finely  serrate  on 
margin,  pointed  at  apex. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  small,  crescent-shaped,  containing  3  bundle- 
scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  June  when  leaves  are  almost  fully  developed.  They  are  perfect, 
white,  J-l  inch  across,  with  disagreeable  odor,  arranged  in  few-flowered  corymbs  and  borne 
on  hairy  and  slender  stalks. 

FRITH — Ripens  in  September  or  October  and  is  arranged  in  small  umbels.  A  subglobose  to 
ellipsoidal  pome,  yellowish-green,  later  dark  reddish-brown,  pubescent,  about  2/5  of  an  inch 
thick,  crowned  with  calyx  lobes;  containing  usually  3-4  nutlets. 

WOOD — Similar  to  that  of  the  Cockspur  Thorn,  page  170,  only  heavier  and  more  valuable. 
Used  for  canes,  napkin  rings,  engraving  blocks,  rulers.  The  wood  is  of  a  high  quality,  taking 
a  fine  polish  but  the  tree  Is  small  and  scarce. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Scarlet  Hawthorn,  also  known  as  White  Thorn, 
Scarlet  Fruited  Thorn,  Thorn,  Thorn  Apple,  and  Hawthorn,  can  be  distinguisbel  by  its  broadly 
ovate  leaves  and  reddish-brown  globose  fruit,  both  of  which  are  pubescent.  The  leaves  are 
5-9-lobed  or  deeply  cut  and  finely  serrate.  The  small  nearly  spherical  chestnut-brown  buds 
and  the  slender  usually  straight  thorns  on  the  branches  will  aid  in  distinguishing  It  from  most 
of  our  native  species  of  trees.  It  is  next  to  impossible  to  distinguish  all  the  species  of  th« 
genus  Crataegus  from  each  other. 

RANGE — Eastern  Massachusetts  and  Vermont,  southward  through  New  York  and  Pennsylvania 
to  Nortn  Carolina. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  throughout  the  State.  Not  so  abundant  In  tht 
northern  and  southwestern  parts  as  elsewhere. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  In  rocky  woods  and  old  pastures  with  sandy  or  gravelly  soil. 
Rather  common  along  fences. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  is  of  no  commercial  importance  In  the  forest. 
It  is,  however,  attractive  on  account  of  its  flowers,  autumnal  color  of  its  foliage,  and  th« 
color  of  its  persistent  fruit. 


172 


AMERICAN  CRAB  APPLE. 
Pyrus  coronaria,  Linnaeus. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — This  genus  embraces  about  40  species  of  small  trees  and  shrubs 
which  inhabit  the  north  temperate  zone.  About  10  species  are  native  to  North  America  and 
6  to  Pennsylvania.  No  important  timber  trees  are  members  of  this  genus  but  some  of  our 
important  fruit  trees  like  the  Apples  and  Pears  belong  here.  Both  our  Common  Pear  and 
Common  Apple  have  been  introduced  from  Europe.  Some  authors  make  a  distinct  genus, 
Malus,  for  the  Apples  and  another  one,  Sorbus,  for  the  Mountain  Ashes.  Both  are  included 
under  Pyrus  in  this  publication. 

FORM — A  small  tree  which  may  attain  a  height  of  25  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  14  inches.  Trunk 
usually  short  and  bearing  rather  slender,  spreading,  and  crooked  branches  which  form  a  rather 
broad  round- topped  crown. 

BARK — Up  to  5  of  nn  inch  thick,  reddish-brown,  roughened  by  longitudinal  furrows  which 
separate  low  ridges  often  covered  with  scales. 

TWIGS — Rather  stout,  at  first  white-woolly,  later  smooth,  reddish-brown,  after  first  year 
bearing  stubby  spurs  or  sometimes  sharp  spines. 

BUDS — Alternate,  about  I-}  of  an  inch  long,  bright  red,  blunt-pointed  or  on  vigorous  terminal 
shoots  sharp-pointed  and  curved,  covered  with  4-8  visible  scales. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  ovate  or  elliptical,  3-4  inches  long,  usually  rounded  at  base, 
sharp-pointed  at  apex,  sharply  serrate  on  margin,  usually  smooth,  dark  green  above,  pale 
green  below.  Stipules  long,  falling  early. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  raised  on  projection  of  twigs,  crescent-shaped;  with  usually  3 
conspicuous  bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  May  or  June  when  the  leaves  are  almost  fully  developed.  Perfect, 
fragrant,  rosy-white,  about  li-2  inches  across,  arranged  in  umbel-like  cymes.  The  flowers 
as  a  whole  resemble  those  of  the  Common  Apple. 

FRUIT — Ripens  about  October.  Pome  or  apple-like,  borne  on  long  slender  stalks,  depressed- 
globose,  1-1|  Inches  in  diameter,  crowned  with  persistent  calyx  lobes  and  filaments,  yellowish- 
green,  fragrant.  The  flesh  Is  clear  and  heavily  charged  with'  bitter  malic  acid.  Seeds  chestnut- 
brown  and  shiny. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  not  distinct;  hard,  heavy,  light  reddish-brown.  Weighs  about 
40  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  carving,  engraving,  tool  handles,  and  eome  turned  articles. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  American  Crab  Apple  closely  resembles  our 
cultivated  apple  only  tLc-  leaves  of  the  former  are  smoother,  the  flowers  more  brilliant  red, 
and  tbe  fruit  smaller  and  very  bitter.  The  fruit  often  persists  far  Into  winter  and  does  not 
rot  readily.  It  can  be  distinguished  from  the  closely  related  Narrow-leaved  Crab  Apple  (Pyrus 
angustifolia,  Ait.)  by  Its  persistent  calyx-lobes  on  the  fruit,  and  by  its  ovate  leaf -blades  while 
those  of  the.  latter  are  usually  lanceolate. 

RANGE — Ontario  south  through  South  Carolina  to  Alabama,  west  to  Michigan,  Missouri,  and 
northern  Louisiana. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Common  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the'  State.  Local 
outposts  reported  from  the  central  and  western  parts  of  the  State.  Peter  Kalm,  a  pupil  of 
Linnaeus,  who  travele-l  ia  America  in  1753,  reported  this  species  "plentiful  in  Pennsylvania." 

HABITAT — Usually  found  in  thickets  and  open  woods  where  rich  moist  soil  is  present. 
Probably  occurs  most  frequently  on  little  hill-tops  near  streams  and  ponds. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  is  of  no  commercial  importance  as  a  forest 
tree.  It  rarely  exceeds  25  ft.  in  height.  The  fruit  is  used  for  Jellies  and  for  cider.  It  is  a  most 
attractive  ornamental  tree  on  account  of  its  j-howy  and  fragrant  flowers  produced  in  great 
profusion. 


PLATE  XC.     AMERICAN  CRAB  APPLE. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,   x  J. 

2.  Longitudinal     section     of     a     flower,     enlarged. 

3.  A  fruiting  branch,  x  1. 

4.  Section  of  a  fruit,  natural  size. 

5.  A  winter  twig,    natural   size. 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,    enlarged. 


PLATE  XCI.     AMERICAN  MOUNTAIN  ASH. 

1.  A    flowering   branch   with   leaves,    x   J. 

2.  Longitudinal  section  of  a  flower,   enlarged. 

3.  A  fruiting  branch,  x  1. 

4.  Section  of  a  fruit,    enlarged. 

5.  A  winter  twig,   natural  size. 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,    enlarged. 


AMERICAN  MOUNTAIN  ASH. 
Pyrus  americana,  (Marshall)  De  Candolle. 

FORM — A  &mall  tree  rarely  exceeding  20  ft.  in  height  with  a  diameter  of  12  inches.  A  tree 
14  inches  in  diameter  is  reported  from  Lycomiug  county.  Trunk  rather  short  and  the  crown 
narrow  and  round-topped. 

BARK — Thin,    smooth   or   slightly   scaly   and   grayish. 

TWIGS — Rather  stout,  smooth,  grayish  to  reddish-brown,  covered  with  conspicuous,  pale, 
oblong  lenticels,  pith  large,  brownish. 

BUDS — Alternate,  puiplish-red,  smooth  or  slightly  hairy  on  outside  but  densely  hairy  on 
inside;  terminal  buds  large,  about  i  of  an  inch  long,  broadly  conical,  with  2-3  visible  bud- 
scales,  sharp-pointed  and  often  curved  at  apex;  lateral  buds  about  J  of  an  inch  long,  closely 
appressed,  somewhat  flattened,  with  1-2  visible  bud-scales. 

LEAVES — Alternate,   compound,   6-10  inches  long,   with  13-17  sessile  leaflets.     Leaflets  hi  pairs 

except    terminal    one,    lanceolate,    2-3    inches    long,    sharp-pointed    at    apex,    serrate    on  margin, 

tapering    or    rounded    at    base.      Smooth    and    dark    yellowish-green    when    full    grown,  turning 
yellow    in    autumn. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  rather  large,  elevated  on  a  projection  of  the  twig,  broadly  U-shaped, 
with  wavy  margin,  containing  3-5  bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS— Appear  about  May  when  the  leaves  are  fully  developed.  They  are  white,  -perfect, 
about  i  of  an  inch  across,  arranged  in  flat  cymes  8-4  inches  across. 

FRUIT — Arranged  in  flat-topped  clusters,  persisting  far  into  winter,  berry-like,  about  the 
size  of  a'  medium-sized  cherry,  bright  red,  round  or  pear-shaped,  in  winter  wrinkled,  its  flesh 
strongly  acid. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  indistinct;  soft,  weak,  brownish,  close-grained.  Weighs  about 
34  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Not  used  commercially. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  American  Mountain  Ash  can  be  distinguished 
b>y  its  alternate  compound  leaves  with  13-17  sessile  leaflets  which  are  conspicuously  toothed. 
The  flat-topped  cymes  of  white  flowers  measuring  about  3-4  inches  across,  and  the  bright 
red  fruit  about  the  size  of  a  pea  and  arranged  in  flat-topped  clusters  are  characteristic.  The 
stout  grayish  to  reddibh-brown  twig  with  conspicuous  pale  lenticels  and  the  purplish-red,  sharp 
pointed,  somewhat  gummy  and  usually  smooth  alternate  buds  are  also  characteristic. 

RANGE— Newfoundland  westward  to  Manitoba  and  Iowa,  southward  in  the  mountains  to 
North  Carolina. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Limited  to  the  mountainous  region  of  the  State.  A 
line  drawn  from  the  western  part  of  Tioga  county  south  to  Somerset  cpunty  and  thence  north- 
east to  Monroe  county  will  include  the  general  distribution  of  this  species. 

HABITAT — Prefers  moist  or  rocky  hillsides.  Often  found  on  the  border  of  streams  and  locally 
common  on  rocky  hillsides. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  is  of  no  commercial  importance.  It  rarely 
exceeds  a  height  of  £0-15  ft.  with  a  diameter  if  12-15  inches.  It  is  rather  attractive  and  de- 
serves to  be  planted  for  ornamental  purposes.  Its  attractive  ornamental  features  are  its  form, 
broad  cyme-like  clusters  of  white  flowers,  and  its  bright  red  clusters  of  fruit  which  ripen 
in  autumn. 


174 


SHAD  BUSH. 

Amelanchier  canadensis,  (Linnaeus)  Mendicus. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — The  genus  Amelanchier  comprises  about  30  species  of  small  trees 
and  shrubs  found  mainly  in  the  temperate  portion  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  About  23  species 
are  found  in  North  America,  6  of  which  attain  tree-size.  Four  species  are  native  to  Pennsylvania, 
only  1  of  which  attains  tree-size. 

FORM — A  small  tree  usually  10-25  ft.  in  height  with  a  diameter  of  6-12  inches  but  may  reach 
a  height  of  40  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  20  inches.  Trunk  usually  straight,  slender,  with  little 
taper,  bearing  a  shallow,  and  narrow  crown  appearing  very  dense  on  account  of  abundant  fine 
sprays  of  branchlets. 

BARK — Rather  smooth  on  young  and  old  specimens.  On  older  specimens  there  is  a  tendency 
to  roughen  through  shalJow,  longitudinal,  sometimes  diagonal  fissures  which  are  rather  dark 
and  separate  broad,  lighter,  and  smooth  ridges  becoming  scaly  near  the  base. 

TWIGS — Slender,  somewhat  zigzag,  bright  green  to  purplish-brown,  smooth  or  often  overlaid 
with  a  grajish  film-like  coating  which  peels  off;  covered  with  a  few,  pale,  scattered  lenticels; 
pith  small,  greenish,  angular. 

BUDS — Alternate,  usually  2-ranked,  slender,  conical,  1-1  of  an  inch  long,  3-4  times  as  long 
as  broad,  sharp-pointed,  greenish-brown  often  tinged  with  purple,  sometimes  smooth  often 
hairy  towards  apex  and  along  bud-scales.  Terminal  buds  longer  than  lateral  which  are 
usually  appiessed  close  to  twig,  sometimes  remaining  very  small.  Bud-scales  largest  near 
base,  often  3-nerved,  darker  and  finely  hairy  along  margin. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  ovate  to  ovate-oblong,  3-4  inches  long,  sharp-pointed  at  apex, 
round  or  heart-shaped  at  base,  finely  and  sharply  serrate  on  margin,  at  first  finely  hairy, 
later  smooth,  dark  green  above,  paler  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  usually  2-ranked,  small,  inconspicuous,  rather  linear  with  projection 
at  bundle-scars  which  an>  large  and  3  in  number. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April  when  leaves  are  just  starting  to  develop;  large,  white,  per- 
fect, stalked,  arranged  in  drooping  racemes  3-5  inches  long. 

FRUIT — Matures  in  June  or  July.  Berry-like  in  racemes,  reddish-purple,  with  a  bloom  when 
fully  ripe,  about  i  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  sweet,  and  containing  small  seeds. 

WOOD — Dilf use-porous;  rays  numerous,  indistinct,  dark  brown  often  touched  with  red;  heavy, 
hard,  strong,  checks  uud  warps  easily,  very  susceptible  to  high  polish.  Weighs  48.85  Ibs.  per 
cubic  foot.  Used  to  a  limited  extent,  mainly  in  turnery. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Shad  Bush,  also  known  as  Service  Berry,  June 
Berry,  and  Sarvice,  can  readily  be  distinguished  in  winter  by  its  smooth  grayish  often  black- 
streaked  bark  and  its  long,  slender,  conical,  sharp-pointed,  greenish-brown  to  purplish  buds  which 
are  often  finely  hairy  towards  the  apex  and  along  the  margin  of  the  scales.  The  buds,  in  form  and 
to  some  extent  in  size,  resemble  the  Beech  but  the  buds  of  the  Beech  are  usually  larger,  clear 
reddish-brown  in  color  and  have  from  10-20  scales  arranged  in  4  rows.  The  twigs  of  the  Beech 
are  shining  reddish-brown  while  those  of  the  Shad  Bush  are  usually  bright  green  to  grayish 
or  purplish-brown.  The  stipule  scars  are  absent  on  the  Shad  Bush  while  they  nearly  encircle 
the  twig  of  the  Beech.  The  large  white  flowers  arranged  in  drooping  racemes  3-5  inches  long 
are  alno  characteristic.  The  leaves  and  the  fruit  will  aid  in  distinguishing  it  in  summer. 

RANGE — Newfoundland  and  Ontario,  southward  to  Florida,  westward  to  Kansas  and  Louisiana. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Found  in  every  portion  of  the  State.  Most  abundant 
among  the  mountain  ranges. 

HABITAT — Occurs  solitary  or  occasionally  In  clumps.  Prefers  open  situations  and  moist 
soil,  but  also  grows  on  sandy  rather  sterile  soil.  Common  along  the  border  of  forests,  banks  of 
streams,  forest  roads,  and  cliffs.  Small  specimens  common  in  tbe  understory  of  our  hardwood 
forests. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— This  species  is  of  little  commercial  Importance  because 
its  wood  is  rarely  used.  It  will  always  be  a  minor  species  not  on  account  of  the  inferiority  of 
its  wood  but  on  account  of  its  small  size  and  limited  and  scattered  distribution.  The  wood 
is  actually  stronger  end  stiffer  than  White  Oak.  Its  conspicuous  white  flowers  in  early  spring 
before  the  leaves  are  out  justify  its  retention  in  the  forest,  especially  where  it  does  not  inter- 
fere with  the  growth  of  other  more  valuable  trees.  The  berries  are  excellent  food  for  birds, 
beasts,  and  man. 


PLATE  XCII.     SHAD  BUSH. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,   x  1. 

2.  Longitudinal    section   of   a    flower,    enlarged. 

3.  A  fruiting  branch  with  mature  leaves,   X  \. 

4.  Section  of  a  fruit,    enlarged. 

5.  A  winter  twig,   natural  size. 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,    enlarged. 


PLATE  XCIII.     BUTTONWOOD. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,    x  i. 

2.  A   head  of   flowers   with    most  of   the   flowers   removed, 

3.  A  staminate  flower,    enlarged. 

4.  A  pistillate  flower,    enlarged. 

5.  A  fruiting  branch  with   mature  leaves,    x   1. 

6.  An  achene,   enlarged. 

7.  A  winter  twig  with  two  heads  of  fruit,   x  J. 

8.  Section  of   a   twig  showing   a   subpetiolar   bud,    x   1. 

9.  Section  of  a  twig  showing  a  stipule,    natural  size. 
10.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,   enlarged. 


x    4. 


175 

BUTTONWOOD. 

Platanus  occidentalis,  Linnaeus. 

FAMILY  AND  GENUS  DESCRIPTION — The  Plane  Tree  family,  Platanaceae,  comprises  only 
1  genus,  Plutanus,  with  about  7  species,  3  of  which  are  native  to  the  United  States  and  1  to 
Pennsylvania.  In  addition  to  the  1  species  native  to  this  State,  the  Old  World  Plane  Tree 
(Platanus  orientalis  L.)  is  very  commonly  planted  as  a  shade  tree  in  the  eastern  states. 

FORM — Usually  attains  a  height  of  70-125  ft.,  but  may  reach  a  height  of  140-170  ft.  with 
a  diameter  of  10-11  feet.  It  is  the  most  massive  of  the  deciduous  trees  of  North  America. 
Trunk  usually  branches  near  the  base  into  heavy  sub-trunks,  vvhich  sub-divide  and  form  a  very 
deep,  wide-spreading,  rather  open,  and  irregular  crown. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  rather  thick,  rigid,  roughened  by  shallow  fissures  separating  broad 
ridges  which  peel  off  into  thin  dark  brown  scales.  On  young  trunks  and  upper  parts  of  old  ones 
it  peels  off  spontaneously  into  large  thin  plates  exposing  a  whitish,  yellowish,  or  a  greenish 
inner  bark.  This  mottled  inner  bark  is  characteristic,  but  rarely  found  near  the  ground. 
See  Fig.  57. 

TWIGS— Rather  stout,  zigzag,  at  first  green  and  pubescent,  later  brownish  to  gray  and 
smooth,  decurrently  ridged,  enlarged  at  the  nodes,  marked  by  numerous,  small,  pale  lenticels, 
encircled  by  stipule-scars.  Pith  wide  and  white. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  bud  absent;  sub-petiolar,  surrounded  by  base  of  leaf -stalk  or  leaf- 
scars,  i-J  of  an  inch  long,  conical,  dull-pointed,  very  divergent  from  section  of  branch  above 
end  slightly  from  section  below,  covered  with  3  scales,  the  outer  one  of  which  is  smooth, 
shining,  reddish-brown,  the  middle  green  and  gummy,  and  the  inner  pubescent. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  broadly  ovate,  3-5-lobed,  toothed  on  margin,  4-10  inches  across, 
bright  green  above,  pale  green  and  white  woolly  below.  Petioles  about  2  inches  long,  round, 
with  enlarged  hollow  bases.  Stipules  1J  inches  long,  conspicuous,  encircling  twig. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  unequal  in  width,  have  a  wavy  outer  margin,  nearly 
encircle  the  buds  at  enlarged  nodes  of  branches,  fcrm  an  angle  of  about  60  degrees  with  the 
section  of  branch  below,  contain  5-10  bundle-scars  which  are  arranged  in  a  curved  line  and 
occur  singly  or  in  groups. 

FLOWERS— Appear  in  dense  heads  with  the  leaves  in  May.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flower 
heads  occur  on  different  stalks.  Staminate  are  axillary  and  dark  red;  pistillate  terminal, 
greenish  and  often  tinged  with  red. 

FRUIT — Matures  in  October.  Occurs  solitary  or  rarely  in  2s  in  brown  heads  about  1  inch 
in  diameter  suspended  from  a  slender  stalk.  Heads  often  persist  far  into  winter  and  are 
composed  of  many  hairy  achenes  about  I  of  an  inch  long. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  conspicuously  broad;  pores  minute;  hard,  difficult  to  split, 
reddish-browr  with  light  to  jyellowish  sapwood.  Weighs  35.39  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  in  the 
manufacture  of  furniture,  interior  furnishing,  crates,  tobacco  boxes,  and  charcoal. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Buttonwood,  also  known  as  Buttonball,  Syca- 
more, and  Plane  Tree,  can  readily  be  distinguished  in  summer  by  its  massive  form,  its 
whitish,  yellowish,  or  greenish  bark  of  the  upper  branches  which  at  times  are  covered  with 
large,  thin,  dark  brown  scales  of  outer  bark.  The  large  leaves  with  their  enlarged  hollow- 
based  petioles  and  the  flowers  in  the  form  of  neads,  are  also  characteristic.  In  winter  the 
massive  form  and  whitewashed  appearance  of  the  upper  branches  is  distinctive.  The  smooth, 
reddish,  sub-petiolar  buds  covered  by  a  single  exposed  scale  and  surrounded  by  a  leaf-scar 
with  5-10  bundle-scars  will  prevent  one  from  confusing  it  with  any  other  of  our  native  species. 
The  persistent  fruit  which  usually  occurs  solitary  is  readily  distinguished  from  the  oriental 
species  which  bears  its  fruit  in  clusters  of  2-4. 

RANGE — Maine  and  Ontario  south  to  Florida,   Avest  to  Minnesota,   Nebraska  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Common  along  streams,  especially  in  the  eastern, 
southern,  western  and  central  parts  of  the  State. 

HABITAT — Prefers  racist,  fertile  soil,  but  will  grow  in  rather  dry  soil.  Best  development  In 
the  moist  valleys  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  wood  of  this  species  is  annually  becoming  of  more 
commercial  importance  and  hence  it  should  be  planted  at  least  to  a  limited  extent.  It  may 
be  grown  from  cuttings  or  from  seed.  It  is  planted  sparingly  for  ornamental  purposes  but 
the  Oriental  Sycamore  seems  to  be  preferred  eince  it  is  more  attractive  and  less  subject  to 
fungous  diseases. 


176 


THE  PULSE  FAMILY— LEGUMINOSAE. 

This  is  a  very  large  family  and  contains  many  well-known  trees, 
shrubs,  and  herbaceous  plants.  It  comprises  about  460  genera  with 
7,350  species  of  which  number  more  than  100  genera  with  about  1,400 
species  are  native  to  North  America.  The  flora  of  Pennsylvania  com- 
prises about  32  genera  with  approximately  90  species  but  only  4  spe- 
cies belonging  to  4  different  genera  can  be  classified  as  trees.  Some 
authors  separate  the  members  of  this  family  into  3  distinct  families 
known  as:  (1)  The  Mimosa  family,  Mimosaceae,  (2)  The  Senna  fam- 
ily, Caesalpiniaceae,  and  (3)  The  Pea  family,  Fabaceae. 

Many  domestic  and  foreign  plants  which  belong  to  this  family  are 
of  considerable  economic  importance.  Some  of  our  native  trees  pro- 
duce very  heavy,  hard,  and  strong  wood.  They  possess  additional 
merits  in  that  they  grow  rapidly  and  are  well  adapted  to  artificial 
propagation.  Some  of  them,  in  particular,  the  Common  Locust,  are 
subject  to  the  attack  of  destructive  insects  and  fungi.  Some  of  the 
shrub  members  of  this  family  are  among  the  most  attractive  that  one 
can  find  for  ornamental  planting.  The  herbaceous  members  com- 
prise some  of  the  commonest  and  most  valuable  food  and  forage 
plants  of  the  world,  such  as  the  peas,  beans,  clover,  and  the  common 
peanut.  Among  the  valuable  products  *which  some  of  the  foreign 
members  of  this  family  produce  one  can  mention  Senna  and  Log- 
wood. Senna  is  prized  on  account  of  its  laxative  properties  and  is 
derived  from  the  leaves  of  a  few  African  species  of  Cassia.  Log- 
wood, the  most  important  of  vegetable  dyes,  is  derived  from  the 
heartwood  of  the  trunk  and  roots  of  a  tree  growing  in  the  West  Indies 
and  Central  America.  Indigo,  one  of  our  important  and  widely  used 
dyes,  is  also  obtained  from  a  member  of  this  family.  The  well-known 
Sensitive  Plant  (Mimosa  pudica  L.)  so  common  in  our  greenhouses 
and  a  mere  weed  in  the  tropics  is  one  of  the  most  widely  known  and 
interesting  representatives  of  this  family.  In  addition  they  comprise 
a  great  number  of  plants  which  are  important  on  account  of  the  medi- 
cinal properties  derived  from  them.  Probably  one  of  the  greatest 
values  which  we  can  attach  to  some  of  the  members  of  this  family 
is  the  means  which  they  have  at  their  command  for  restoring  nitrogen 
to  barren  land.  If  one  examines  the  roots  of  clover,  alfalfa,  soy 
bean,  or  the  Common  Locust  he  may  find  little  swellings  or  enlarge- 
ments upon  them  known  as  root  tubercles.  These  swellings  are 
caused  by  bacteria  which  possess  the  power  of  taking  free  nitrogen 
from  the  air  and  by  means  of  complicated  chemical  changes  passing 
it  to  members  of  this  family.  As  a  result  these  plants  can  be  grown 
upon  soils  very  deficient  in  nitrates.  In  addition  they  will  return 
sufficient  nitrogen  to  the  soil  so  that  companion  or  subsequent  crops 
will  thrive  which  would  have  barely  existed  without  the  nitrogen. 
The  Common  Locust  often  thrives  on  old  abandoned  mud-dams  found 


about  ore  mines  while  other  more  aggressive  species  fail  even  to  es- 
tablish themselves. 

The  members  of  this  family  are  distinctly  characterized  by  their 
fruit  which  matures  in  one  season  and  usually  resembles  ordinary 
garden  beans  or  peas.  The  fruit  of  some  of  the  trees  found  in  the 
western  part  of  North  America  varies  more  or  less  from  the  typical 
bean-like  fruit  pod.  The  flowers  of  our  native  trees  may  be  irregular 
in  form,  i.  e.  pea-like  or  bean-like,  as  in  the  Common  Locust  and  Ked- 
bud,  or  regular  in  form  as  in  the  Honey  Locust  and  Kentucky  Coffee 
Tree.  The  two  native  tree-species  with  irregular  flowers  have  also 
perfect  flowers,  i.  e.  flowers  with  both  the  male  (pollen  producing) 
and  female  (seed  producing)  organs  in  the  same  flower  while  the 
other  two  native  tree-species  have  regular  but  imperfect  flowers,  i. 
e.  flowers  with  one  sex  so  suppressed  that  only  the  other  sex  remains 
in  each  flower.  Whenever  the  male  and  female  flowers,  also  known 
as  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  respectively,  occur  separately, 
they  may  be  found  on  the  same  branch,  or  on  the  same  tree,  or  on 
different  trees.  The  leaves  of  nearly  all  the  tree  members  of  this 
family  are  alternate  and  compound,  but  a  few  such  as  our  native 
Eedbud  have  simple  leaves.  Some  species  as  our  Common  Locust  are 
normally  only  once  compound,  others  as  the  Honey  Locust  may  be 
once  or  twice  compound,  while  still  others,  as  the  Kentucky  Coffee 
Tree,  may  be  normally  twice  compound. 

SUMMER  KEY  TO   THE   GENERA. 

Page. 
1.    Leaves  simple;   iwijr.3  slender  and  unarmed,    Cercis        180 

1.  Leaves  compound;   twigs  stout  or  armed  with  spines  or  thorns,    2 

2.  Twigs  very  stout  and  clumsy  but  not  armed  with  spines  or  thorns;   fruit-pods  woody; 

leaves    twice    compound,    from   1-3   ft.    long Gymnocladus        178 

2.  Twigs  relatively  slender  and  armed  with  spines  or  thorns;   fruit-pods  leathery;   leaves 

usually  cnce  or  sometimes  twice  compound,   rarely  over  1  ft.   long,    3 

3.  Flowers    greenish,    regular    or   nearly    so,    imperfect,    in    axillary    spikes;    leaves    once 

or    twice    compound,    even-pinnate;    twigs,    branches,    and    often    trunks    with    long 

branched     thorns       Gleditsia         179 

3.  Flowers  whitish,  irregular,  perfect  in  drooping  racemes;  leaves  usually  once  com- 
pound, odd-pinnate;  twigs  often  with  two  short  spines  at  nodes Robinia  181 

WINTER  KEY  TO  THE  GENERA. 

1.    Twigs,   branches,   an<?  trunks  usually  armed  with  spines  or  thorns.    2 

1.  Twigs,    branches,    and   trunks   without    spines   or   thorns, 3 

2.  Twigs   and    branches   armed   with   a    pair   of   spines   not   exceeding    i   of    an    inch    in 

length  at  each  node;  fruit-pods  2-4  inches  long,  5  of  an  inch  broad;  bark  reddish- 
brown,  even  on  young  trunks  deeply  furrowed,  Robinia  181 

2.  Twigs,    branches,    and   often    trunks   usually    ermed   with    thorns    which    occur   singly, 

are  often  branched  and  usually  much  exoeed  $  of  an  inch  in  length;  fruit-pods  10-18 
inches  long,  1-li  inches  wide;  bark  grayish-brown  to  black,  not  furrowed,  often 
covered  with  conspicuous  oblong  lenticels,  Gleditsia  179 

3.  Twigs    stout,    clumsy,    blunt-pointed,    with    large    conspicuous    bundle-scars    and    large 

pink  to  brown  pith;  fruit-pods  thick,  woody,  stubby,  certain  fleshy  pulp  and  large 
seeds;  buds  silkr-pubescent,  depressed,  uppermost  one  surrounded  by  incurved 

hairy   ring  of  bark Gymnooladus         178 

3.  Twigs  slender,  not  clumsy  nor  blunt-pointed,  with  inconspicuous  bundle-scars  and 
pith  with  reddish  longitudinal  streaks;  fruit-pods  very  thin,  leathery,  without 
fleshy  pulp,  an.l  contain  small  seeds;  buds  smooth,  not  depressed,  often  somewhat 
flattened  and  oppressed Cercii  18' 

12 


178 


KENTUCKY  COFFEE-TREE. 

Gymnocladus  dioica,  (Linnaeus)  Koch. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — This  genus  comprises  only  2  species,  one  Gymnocladus  chinensis 
a  native  of  southern  China,  and  the  other  described  here.  The  generic  name  Gymnocladus  is  of 
Greek  origin  and  means  "naked  branch"  referring  to  the  stout  clumsy  branches  which  are 
devoid  of  foliage  for  about  6  months  of  the  year. 

FORM— A  medium-sized  tree  usually  40-80  ft.  in  height  with  a  diameter  of  1-2  ft.  but  may 
teach  a  height  of  100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  feet.  Trunk  usually  short,  soon  subdividing 
into  2  or  S  secondary  nc-arly  parallel  stems.  Crown  narrow  obovate,  composed  of  very  stout 
branchlets. 

BARK — Of  medium  thickness,  dark  gray  to  dark  brown,  roughened  by  shallow  fissures  separat- 
ing low  ridges  covered  with  thin  recurved  scales. 

TWIGS — Very  stout,  blunt-pointed,  greenish-brown,  often  coated  with  a  whitish  crusty  film, 
occasionally  covered  with  fine  hairs,  and  marked  with  large  conspicuous  lenticels  usually  most 
numerous  on  the  second  year's  growth.  Pith  large,  pink  to  brown  in  color. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  bud  absent;  small,  downy,  imbedded  in  twig  so  that  it  scarcely 
projects  beyond  surface,  surrounded  by  incurved  hairy  ring  of  bark,  superposed.  The  upper- 
most bud  is  the  largest;  the  lowest  is  small  and  located  in  the  depression  at  top  of  leaf -scar. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  twice  compound,  1-3  ft.  long,  1J-2  ft.  broad,  with  7-13  foliate  pinnae; 
1-2  basal  pairs  of  pinnaa  are  reduced  to  entire  leaflets.  Pinnae  htive  3-7  pairs  of  leaflets.  Leaflets 
ovate,  2-2J  inches  long,  wedge-shaped  to  rounded  at  base,  sharp-pointed  at  apex,  entire  to 
wavy  on  margin. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  large,  conspicuous,  raised  on  projections  of 
twigs,  broadly  heart-shaped,  paler  in  color  than  surrounding  twig;  contain  3-5  large,  raised 
bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  June.  Regular,  polygamus,  or  dioecious  by  abortion.  Staminate 
flowers  greenish-white  and  arranged  in  a  raceme-like  corymb  about  3-4  inches  long.  Pistillate 
flowers  greenish-white  and  arranged  in  terminal  racemes  6-8  inches  long. 

FRUIT — A  broad,  flat,  thick,  stubby,  reddish-brown  pod,  4-10  inches  long,  1-2  inches  broad, 
sometimes  covered  with  a  grayish  bloom.  Pods  often  persist  far  into  winter  and  remain  closed. 
Seeds  dark  brown,  flat,  6-9  'to  a  pod,  over  &  of  an  inch  across,  surrounded  by  a  somewhat 
sticky  sweet  pulp. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  pores  in  spring  wood  large,  in  late  wood  small;  rays  distinct  but  not 
conspicuous;  heavy,  not  hard,  strong,  coarse-gained,  light  brown  to  reddish-brown,  durable 
in  contact  with  soil;  takes  a  fine  polish.  Weighs  about  43  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for 
fence  posts,  fence  rails,  and  occasionally  in  construction. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Kentucky  Coffee-tree,  also  known  as  Mahogany, 
Coffee  Nut,  and  Nicker  Tree,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  large  twice  compound  leaves,  its 
stout,  clumsy,  unarmed  branches  marked  with  large  leaf-scars  and  containing  pink  to  brown 
pith,  and  by  its  thick,  stubby,  and  woody  fruit-pods.  The  superposed,  depressed,  silky  buds, 
the  uppermost  of  which  is  surrounded  hy  an  incurved  hairy  ring  of  bark,  are  also  character- 
istic. In  general  it  resembles  the  Ailanthus  lut  it  can  be  distinguished  from  it  especially  by 
its  curious  bark,  its  characteristic  fruit,  and  the  parallelism  of  its  primary  branches. 

RANGE — Central  New  York  south  to  Tennessee  and  westward  to  Minnesota  and  Indian 
Territory.  It  is  absent  from  many  localities  within  this  range. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Planted  extensively  as  an  ornamental  tree  but  usually 
known  under  the  name  of  Mahogany.  Franklin  county  is  the  only  part  of  the  State  where  it  is 
reported  as  a  native  tree. 

HABITAT — Rich  woods  and  bottomlands.  Always  occurs  solitary,  never  in  clusters  or  stands. 
Often  only  a  single  tree  known  in  a  locality.  When  planted  it  will  grow  practically  anywhere 
In  tbe  State. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  tree  is  of  no  commercial  importance,  especially  in 
this  State  where  it  is  very  rare.  It  is  regarded  rather  attractive  as  an  ornamental  tree  and 
is  planted  extensively  In  this  State.  It  loses  its  leaves  early  in  autumn  and  develops  them 
late  in  spring. 


PLATE  XCIV.     KENTUCKY  COFFEE-TREE. 


1.  Staminate   flowers,    x    J. 

2.  Pistillate  flowers,    x   i. 

3.  Portion  of  a  doubly  compound  leaf,  x  j 

4.  Fruit  pods  with  portion  of  one  pod  removed  showing  two  seeds,   x  J. 

5.  Section  of  a  winter  twig  showing  superposed  and  inconspicuous   buds. 

scars  with  bundle-scars,   x  J. 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,   slightly  enlarged. 


lenticels,    pith,   and  leaf- 


PLATE  XCV.     HONEY  LOCUST. 

1.  Flowering  branch  with  mature  leaves,   x  i. 

2.  Section  of  a  branch  with  fruiting  pods  and  a  branched   thorn,    x   J. 

3.  A  winter  twig  with  thorns,    x   i. 

4.  A   branched   thorn,    x   J. 

5.  A  leaf-scar,    enlarged. 


179 

HONEY  LOCUST. 
Gleditsia  triacanthos,  Linnaeus. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — This  genus  comprises  about  11  species  of  trees  which  are  usually 
armed  on  the  branches  and  trunk  with  simple  or  branched  thorns.  They  are  distributed  in  the 
temperate  part  of  Asia  and  eastern  North  America.  Fossil  representatives  of  this  genus  have 
been  reported  from  Europe.  Three  species  are  native  to  eastern  North  America,  one  inhabiting 
Texas,  one  the  southern  and  south-central  United  States,  and  one  described  here.  The  generic 
name  is  in  commemoration  of  the  German  botanist,  John  Gottlieb  Gleditsch. 

FORM— A  medium-sized  tree  usually  from  40-50  ft.  high  with  a  diameter  of  1-2  ft.  but 
may  reach  a  height  of  140  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4-6  feet.  Trunk  usually  short  but  when 
grown  in  very  close  stands  may  be  rather  clean  and  long.  Crown  broad,  obovate,  round-topped, 
high  on  account  of  lateral  drooping  branches. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  smooth  covered  with  many,  very  conspicuous,  raised,  oblong  lenticels; 
on  old  trunks  grayish-brown  to  almost  black,  sometimes  smooth  but  usually  roughened  by  a  few 
fissures  and  thick,  firm,  broad  ridges  with  projecting  edges.  Bark  on  trunks  is  often  covered 
with  many  thorns.  See  Figs.  59  and  04. 

TWIGS — Rather  stout,  zigzag,  smooth,  glossy,  with  enlarged  nodes;  greenish-red  to  brown, 
covered  with  few,  small,  scattered  lenticels  which  become  larger  in  time;  pith  thick  and  white. 
Twigs  frequently  bear  thorns  which  are  often  branched  and  contain  reddish-brown  pith. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  bud  absent;  small,  usually  3-5  at  a  node,  placed  one  above  another; 
upper  ones  scaly  and  visible,  lowest  one  not  scaly,  nor  visible  except  as  a  dot.  Some  buds  are 
slow  in  de\  eloping. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  singly  or  doubly  compound,  7-8  inches  long.  Petioles  flattened,  grooved 
above,  enlarged  at  base.  When  singly  compound  with  18-28  leaflets;  when  doubly  compound 
with  8-14  pinnae  and  each  with  usually  18-20  leaflets.  Leaflets  lanceolate-oblong,  15-2  inches 
long,  rounded  at  the  base  and  apex,  somewhat  serrate  on  margins. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked  or  more  than  2-ranked,  U-shaped;  varjying  in  width; 
broadest  about  the  3  bundle-scars  and  narrower  between. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  or  June.  Polygamus,  small,  greenish.  Staminate  flowers 
arranged  in  short  hairy  racemes  with  short  stalks.  Pistillate  flowers  in  few-flowered,  rather 
elongated  and  solitary  racemes. 

FRUIT — A  more  or  less  twisted,  flat,  and  reddish-brown  pod,  10-18  inches  long,  containing 
many  flat,  oval,  brownish  seeds.  The  pods  are  thin,  do  not  split  open,  often  persist  into  winter, 
and  occasionally  are  produced  in  large  numbers. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  rays  conspicuous  on  account  of  their  brilliancy;  hard,  strong,  heavy, 
durable  in  contact  with  the  soil;  heartwood  bright  reddish-brown  with  thin  pale  eapwood. 
Weighs  about  42  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  mainly  for  fence  posts  and  rails,  hubs  of  wheels,  and 
general  construction.  In  time  its  use  will  be  extended  and  it  may  be  grown  for  timber. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Honey  Locust,  also  known  as  the  Sweet  Locust, 
Thorn  Tree,  Three-thorned  Acacia,  and  Honey  Shucks,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  large  branched 
thorns  located  above  th«  leaf-scars.  A  thornless  variety  is,  however,  known.  The  once-com- 
pound or  sometimes  twice-compound  evenly-pinnate  and  alternate  leaves  together  with  the 
leathery  fruit  pod  from  10-18  inches  long  and  the  grayish-brown  to  black  bark  often  covered 
with  conspicuous  oblong  lenticels  are  also  characteristic.  A  longitudinal  section  of  a  twig 
just  above  the  origin  of  a  leaf  or  a  leaf-scar  will  usually  show  five  separated  and  superposed  buds, 
the  upper  scaly  and  externally  visible,  the  lowest  not  scaly  and  hidden  beneath  the  bark. 

RANGE — Ontario   through   Pennsylvania   to  Florida,   westward  to  Kansas  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  as  a  native  or  planted  tree  in  all  parts  of  the 
State.  Its  original  distribution  in  this  State  was  limited  almost  entirely  to  the  region  west 
of  the  Allegheny  Mountains,  except  a  few  local  outposts  east  of  them.  At  present  it  is  common 
as  a  planted  tree  in  the  entire  eastern  portion  of  the  State  and  in  many  places  has  escaped 
cultivation. 

HABITAT — It  develops  best  in  rich  soil  along  moist  river  bottoms  but  will  grow  in  any  fertile 
soil  which  is  not  too  wet.  It  demands  plenty  of  light. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— This  tree  is  of  little  commercial  Importance  as  a  timber 
tree  in  Pennsylvania  because  it  is  limited  in  its  distribution.  Most  of  the  existing  trees  of  this 
State  are  open  grown  and  not  forest  grown,  therefore,  too  knotty  to  be  of  any  commercial 
value.  If  properly  planted  it  will  produce  excellent  wood.  It  grows  rapidly,  Is  free  from 
insect  and  fungal  enemies,  has  an  attractive  form,  and  bears  graceful  foliage.  The  leaves 
come  out  late  In  sprint  and,  hence.  It  is  not  of  much  value  for  shade. 


180 


REDBUD. 

Cercis  canadensis,  Linnaeus. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — This  genus  comprises  7  species  of  small  trees  and  shrubs  found  in 
parts  of  Asia,  Europe  and  North  America.  Three  species  are  native  to  North  America,  1 
inhabiting  California,  1  Mexico  and  Texas,  and  1  eastern  United  States.  The  latter  is  native 
to  Pennsylvania  and  described  here.  They  are  prized  mainly  on  account  of  their  ornamental  value 
due  to  their  bright  rose-colored,  pea-like  flowers  which  cover  the  branches  with  a  profuse  and 
brilliant  flame  of  color  in  early  spring  before  the  leaves  come  out. 

FORM — A  small  tree  usually  about  15-20  ft.  high  with  a  diameter  of  6  inches  but  may  reach  a 
height  of  50  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  18  inches.  Trunk  short  bearing  rather  upright  branches 
which  form  a  shallow  and  broad  crown. 

BARK — Thin,  shallowy  fissured  separating  ridges  which  peel  off  into  numerous  scales,  reddish- 
brown  to  very  dark  brown.  See  Fig.  56. 

TWIGS — Slender,  smooth,  light  brown,  becoming  grayish-brown,  covered  with  numerous  very 
small  lenticels,  containing  pith  which  sometimes  has  reddish  longitudinal  streaks. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  one  absent;  small,  i  of  an  inch  long,  blunt-pointed,  dark  purplish- 
red,  spherical  or  somewhat  flattened  when  appressed.  Sometimes  superposed  with  upper  one 
usually  the  larger,  or  clustered  at  the  base  of  a  lateral  branch,  covered  with  2-3  visible  scales 
with  hairy  margin. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  rounded  or  heart-shaped,  3-5  inches  long,  conspicuously  5-7 
nerved,  cordate  at  base,  pointed  at  apex,  entire  on  margin. 

LEAF-SCABS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  inversely  triangular  to  heart-shaped,  somewhat  raised, 
containing  3  conspicuous  bundle-scars.  Short  spreading  ridges  often  originate  at  outer  margin 
of  the  leaf-scars  and  extend  down  the  stem  for  a  short  distance. 

FLOWERS — Appear  ir  March  or  April  before  the  leaves  or  sometimes  when  the  leaves  are 
just  appearing.  Resemble  the  sweet  pea  in  form;  perfect  and  brilliant  red,  borne  usually 
in  clusters  of  4-8,  often  developing  from  buds  located  at  the  base  of  lateral  branches  as  well  as 
from  buds  located  along  the  branches. 

FRUIT — A  small,  rose-colored  to  light  brown,  short-stalked  pod,  25-3  inches  long,  about  i  of 
an  Inch  wide,  containing  about  6  broadly  ovate,  flattened,  light-brown  seeds.  Pods  may  persist 
until  early  winter  and  are  often  produced  in  enormous  quantities. 

WOOD— Ring-porous;  heavy,  hard,  not  strong,  rich  dark  reddish-brown  with  light  sapwood. 
Weighs  39.65  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Not  found  on  the  market. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Redbud,  also  known  as  the  Wild  Pea,  and  Judas 
Tree,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  simple  alternate  and  heart-shaped  leaves,  its  slender  unarmed  and 
light  brown  twigs  with  reddish-streaked  pith,  its  small,  thin,  leathery  fruit-pods,  and  its  perfect, 
pea-like,  brilliant  red  blossoms  which  occur  in  clusters  of  4-8,  appearing  in  early  spring  before 
the  leaves  j=nd  developing  from  a  cluster  of  buds  located  at  the  base  of  a  lateral  branch  as 
well  as  from  buds  located  along  the  twigs.  This  is  the  only  tree  native  to  this  State  which 
develops  a  cluster  of  purplish  flower  buds  on  a  branch  just  below  the  origin  of  a  lateral  twig. 

RANGE — Ontario  through  New  Jersey  to  Florida,  westward  to  Minnesota  and  Arkansas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Not  known  to  occur  in  the  northern  or  eastern  parts 
of  the  State.  Reported  from  the  southeastern,  southern,  central  and  western  parts.  Common 
in  the  Schuylkill  and  Perkiomen  Valleys  and  along  parts  of  the  Susquehanna  River  Valley, 
especially  northwest  aud  southeast  of  Harrisburg.  Common  about  Gettysburg,  and  south  of 
Cbambtrsburg  in  the  Cumberland  Valley.  Occurs  in  a  dense  pure  stand  covering  about  one 
acre  southwest  of  Gettysburg. 

HABITAT — Prefers  rich  moist  soils.  Common  in  abandoned  fields,  cut-over  and  open  wood- 
lands. Also  found  in  the  understory  of  the  forest.  Endures  shade  but  prefers  plenty  of  light. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  tree  is  of  no  commercial  importance  as  a  forest  tree 
but  where  a  tall  shrub  or  a  small  tree  is  desired  for  ornamental  planting  hardly  a  more 
attractive  one  could  be  found.  It  has  a  pleasing  form  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  an  exceptionally 
beautiful  and  abundant  bloom  in  spring  before  the  leaves  com*  out,  and  in  addition,  grows 
rapidly.  It  is  cultivated  extensively  in  Europe  as  an  ornamental  tree. 


PLATE  XCVI.     REDBUD. 


1.  A  flowering  branch,   x  J 

2.  A  single  flower,   x  J. 

3.  A   single   stamen,    enlarged. 

4.  A  single  pistil,   enlarged. 

5.  A  pistil  with  the  ovary  sectioned  so  as  to  show  the  ovules,   enlarged. 

6.  A  fruiting  branch,  x  J. 

7.  An  opened   pod  showing  the  seeds,    x  J. 

8.  A   winter   twig,    x   i. 

9.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,   enlarged. 

10   Portion  of  a  winter  twig  showing  location  and  arrangement  of  buds,  enlarged. 


PLATE  XCVII.     COMMON  LOCUST. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,   x  J. 

2.  A  fruiting  branch,   x  J. 

3.  A  winter   twig,    x  \. 

4.  Section    of    a    winter    twig,     enlarged. 

5.  Section    of    a    winter    twig,     enlarged. 


181 

COMMON  LOCUST. 
Robinia  Pseudo-Acacia,  Linnaeus. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — This  genus  comprises  7  species  of  tiees  and  shrubs  native  only  to 
North  America  but  some  are  planted  extensively  in  Europe.  Three  of  the  7  species  reach  tree- 
sijsp  while  the  others  remain  shrubs.  The  generic  name  is  in  commemoration  of  the  French 
botanist  Jean  Hobin  and  his  son  Yespasieu. 

FORM — A  medium-sized  tree  usually  30-45  ft.  high  with  a  diameter  of  1-1J  ft.  but  may  reach 
a  height  of  75  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2-2J  feet.  Forest  grown  specimens  are  often  straight,  clean, 
Kinl  free  fiom  branches  for  3  of  height  of  tree.  Open  grown  specimens  usually  branch  low. 
Crown  usually  narrow,  oblong,  anj  open. 

BARK — On  both  young  and  old  trunks  rough,  reddish-brown,  deeply  furrowed,  with  high 
rather  rounded  ridges  which  do  not  peel  off  in  scales;  sometimes  1-1J  inches  in  thickness.  See 
Fig.  83. 

TWIGS — Rather  stout,  brittle,  more  or  less  zigzag,  round  to  angular  in  cross-section,  sometimes 
ridged,  greenish  to  reddish-brown;  often  bearing  two  spines  at  a  node,  covered  with  a  few  pale 
lenticels;  pith  white  and  often  angular. 

BUBS — Alternate;  terminal  one  absent;  small,  3-4  superposed,  imbedded  in  twig  under  leaf- 
scar  in  a  rusty  somewhat  hairy  cavity.  Their  position  is  hardly  visible  in  winter  but  becomes 
evident  in  spring  when  growth  starts. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  compound,  8-14  inches  long;  petioles  slender,  grooved  on  top,  and  swollen 
at  the  base.  Leaflets  odd  in  number  and  stalked,  ovate  to  oblong,  7-9  in  number,  1-2  inches  long, 
usually  rounded  at  apex  and  base,  entire  on  margin. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  rather  large  and  conspicuous,  irregular  in  out- 
line, covering  the  buds;  often  located  between  two  prickles  which  are  developed  and  hardened 
stipules;  contain  3  bundle-scars. 

FLQWERS — Appear  about  May  after  the  leaves  or  occasionally  before  the  leaves,  resembling 
the  blossom  of  a  pea.  Pertect,  cream-white,  about  an  inch  r  cross,  fragrant,  borne  on  slender 
stalks  about  I  of  an  inch  long,  arranged  in  loose  drooping  racemes  4-5  inches  long. 

FRUIT — A  small,  dark  brown,  and  thin  pod,  2-4  inches  long  and  J  of  an  inch  wide;  usually  con- 
taining from  4-8  small  dark  brown  mottled  seeds.  The  pods  often  persist  far  into  winter. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  rays  quite  distinct  especially  on  radial  section;  heavy,  very  hard  and 
strong,  very  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil,  yellowish-brown  to  cherry-red  or  reddish-brown  with 
thin  greenish  or  yellowish  sapwood.  Weighs  about  46  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  extensively  in 
former  time  for  ship  building,  and  at  present  for  posts,  in  turnery,  for  tree  nails,  insulator  pins 
and  fuel. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Common  Locust,  also  known  as  the  Black 
Locust,  Yellow  Locust,  White  Locust,  Locust,  and  Acacia,  may  be  distinguished  by  its  droop- 
ing racemes  of  white  irregular  flowers,  its  odd-pinnate  compound  leaves,  its  twigs  with  two  short 
spines  at  a  node,  its  2-4  inches  long  leathery  fruit  pod  and  its  deeply  furrowed  reddish-  brown 
bark.  The  leaf-scars  located  between  the  two  spines  when  present  and  covering  3-4  rusty  downy 
superposed  buds  are  also  characteristic.  The  characteristic  coloration  of  the  foliage  of  this 
tree  when  attacked  by  the  Locust  Leaf  Miner  an<!  the  characteristic  swelling  of  the  branches 
when  attacked  by  the  Locust  Borer  aid  in  recognizing  it.  The  presence  of  the  fruiting 
body  of  the  Locust  Rot  (Fomes  rimosus)  so  common  in  southern  Pennsylvania,  is  a  sure  means 
of  identifying  the  tree. 

RANGE — Mountains  of  Pennsylvania,  south  to  Georgia,  westward  to  Iowa  and  Kansas. 
Naturalized  over  an  extensive  area  in  America  and  widely  planted  in  Europe. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Originally  it  was  found  only  in  the  central  and  south- 
ern  portions  of  the  Allegheny  Mountains  in  this  State.  At  present  it  is  found  all  over  the 
State  as  an  ornamental  tree  or  in  fence  rows  and  in  many  places  it  has  escaped  into  the  forest 
and  abandoned  fields. 

HABITAT — Grows  vigorously  on  moist  fertile  soil,  especially  on  rich  bottomlands  and  along 
mountain  streams.  Also  grows  on  rather  rocky  and  sterile  mountain  slopes.  Frequent  on 
abandoned  charcoal  hearths  and  mud-dams  found  near  ore  mines. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  real  importance  of  this  tree  is  somewhat  in  doubt. 
It  produces  excellent  wood  and  grows  rapidly  in  some  localities,  especially  where  It  Is  free 
from  enemies.  Two  insects,  known  as  Locust  Borer  and  Locust  Leaf  Miner,  and  a  fungus  known 
as  the  Locust  Rot  (Fomes  rimosus),  are  doing  enormous  damage  to  this  tree  locally.  In 
regions  where  these  enemies  are  wanting  and  where  suitable  soil  and  climate  are  at  band  it  may 
be  advisable  to  plant  this  tree  especially  when  posts,  poles,  or  ties  ace  desired.  It  has  ve^ 
attractive  flowers  which  may  appear  before,  with,  or  after  the  leaves. 


182 


THE  CASHEW  FAMILY— ANACARDIACEAE. 

This  family  contains  a  large  number  of  small  trees  and  shrubs 
and  a  few  woody  climbers  widely  distributed  over  the  world,  but 
most  abundant  in  the  tropics.  Many  of  the  representatives  of  this 
family  are  noted  for  their  acrid,  resinous,  or  milky  juice  which  makes 
them  of  considerable  value  in  medicine,  tanning,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  varnishes  and  resins. 

About  50  genera  with  500  species  belong  to  this  family.  North 
America  has  few  representatives.  Only  3  genera  with  tree  repre- 
sentatives are  embraced  in  its  flora.  The  genus  Rhus  is  the  only  one 
native  to  northeastern  America.  It  has  representatives  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. 


THE  SUMACHS— RHUS,  Linnaeus. 

The  Sumachs  comprise  a  large  number  of  trees  and  shrubs  which 
are  widely  distributed.  About  120  species  are  known  of  which  num- 
ber about  16  species  are  native  to  North  America  and  6  to  Pennsylva- 
nia. Most  of  the  species  of  this  genus  are  found  in  South  Africa. 
All  have  large  pithy  twigs  and  a  milky,  sometimes  poisonous,  sticky 
juice.  The  leaves  of  all  are  alternate.  One  species  alone  is  ever- 
green and  one  other  has  simple  leaves.  All  others  are  deciduous  and 
have  compound  leaves. 

Three  of  the  6  species  native  to  Pennsylvania  reach  tree-size.  The 
others  are  mere  shrubs.  The  Poison  Ivy  or  Poison  Oak  (Rhus  Toxi- 
codendron  L.)  is  very  abundant  along  fences  and  by  roadsides.  Its 
stem  often  trails  along  the  ground  and  sends  up  short  branchlets 
which  bear  the  compound  leaves  with  3  leaflets.  The  leaves  are 
poisonous  to  the  touch.  The  Smooth  Sumach  (Rhus  glabra  L.) 
is  a  low-growing  and  spreading  shrub  sometimes  becoming  a  small 
tree.  It  has  glabrous  branchlets  which  are  more  or  less  glaucous. 
It  has  compound  leaves  with  11-31  leaflets.  It  is  very  common  in 
abandoned  fields  and  seems  to  thrive  on  sandy  soil.  The  Fragrant 
Sumach  (Rhus  canadensis  Marsh.)  reaches  a  height  of  2-6  ft.  It 
has  compound  leaves  with  3  leaflets  which  are  aromatic  when  crushed. 
The  Smoke-Tree  (Rhus  Cotinus  L.)  is  one  of  the  commonest 
plants  of  our  gardens  and  lawns.  It  is  an  introduced  species  com- 
ing from  Europe  and  warm-temperate  Asia.  Locally  it  has  escaped 
cultivation. 


183 


SUMMER  KEY  TO  THE   SPECIES. 

Page. 

1.    Leaf -petioles   winged;    leaflets  with   entire   margins   except   near   apex,    ..R.    copallina        186 

1.  Leaf -petioles   not  winged;   leaflets   either   with   entire   or   serrate   margins,    2 

2.  Leaflets   7-13,    with   entire   margins,    R.    Vernix        184 

2.  Leaflets    11-31,    with    serrate    margins 3 

3.  Leaflets    glaucous    beneath;    twigs    smooth;    shrubs R,    glabra         183 

3.    Leaflets    not    glaucous    beneath;    twigs    densely    hairy;    small    trees,     R.    typhina        185 


WINTER  KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES. 

1.    Terminal   bud    present;    fruit    white,    smooth,    in    loose,    drooping,  grape-like    clusters 
frequents    swamps;    leaf -scars    broad,    do    not    encircle    buds;    juice    poisonous,     .... 

R.    Vernix        184 

1.  Terminal  bud  absent;   fruit  red,  hairy,   in  '.'ompact  erect  clusters;   frequents  dry  soils; 

leaf -scars  encircle  or  almost  encircle  buds;   juice  not  poisonous 2 

2.  Twigs   stout,    with   watery   juice;    leaf -scars   broadly    crescent-shaped R.    copallina        186 

2.  Twigs    very    stout,    with    milky    juice;    leaf -scars    narrower,     3 

3.  Twigs    densely    hairy,     R.     typhina        185 

3.    Twigs    smooth R,     glabra        182 


184 


POISON  SUMACH. 

Rhus  Vernix,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — A  shrub  to  small  tree,  usually  5-10  ft.  high  but  may  reach  a  height  of  20  ft.  with  a 
diameter  of  8  inches.  Usually  branches  near  ground.  Crown  wide,  deep,  and  usually  rounded. 

BARK — Smooth,  somewhat  streaked,  thin,  light  to  dark  gray,  roughened  with  horizontally- 
elongated  lenticels. 

TWIGS — Stout,  orange-brown,  later  light  gray,  smooth,  often  glossy,  covered  with  numerous 
raised  lenticels,  contain  yellowish -brown  pith;  if  punctured  or  cut,  exude  watery  juice  which 
turns  yellow  upon  exposure. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  bud  present  and  larger  than  lateral  ones;  purplish,  conical,  acute, 
about  1/5-3/5  of  an  inch  long,  covered  with  a  few  scales  which  are  downy  on  back  and  margin. 

•  LEAVES — Alternate,  compound,  7-14  inches  long,  with  wingless  petiole,  and  with  7-13  leaflets, 
obovate,  3-4  inches  long,  acute  at  apex,  wedge-shaped  at  base,  entire-margined,  dark  green  and 
shiny  above,  pale  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  large,  broad,  conspicuous,  do  not  encircle  buds,  upper  margin  straight 
or  nearly  BO,  contain  numerous  bundle-scars  which  are  scattered  or  arranged  in  a  curved  line. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  June  or  July.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  borne  on  different 
plants.  The  small  yellowish-green  flowers  are  arranged  in  long,  drooping,  rather  narrow  panicles. 

FRTJIT — A  small,  spherical,  glossy,  ivory-white  to  yellowish-white  drupe  arranged  in  loose, 
drooping,  grape-like  clusters.  It  is  about  1/5  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  slightly  compressed  and  often 
persists  far  into  winter.  Ripens  about  September.  Pistillate  trees  alone  bear  fruit. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  brittle,  soft,  coarse-grained,  light  yellow  in  color.  Weighs  27.31  Ibs.  per 
cubic  foot. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Poison  Sumach,  also  known  as  Poison  Oak,  Poison 
Dogwood,  Poison  Elder,  and  Swamp  Sumach,  can  be  recognized  in  winter  by  its  alternate  buds 
with  the  terminal  bud  present,  its  broad  leaf-scars  which  do  not  encircle  the  bud  and  its  smooth 
and  rather  stout  branchlets.  The  white  berry-like  fruit  arranged  in  drooping  clusters  often  per- 
sists far  into  winter.  The  leaves  are  compound,  without  winged  petioles  and  have  from  7-13  shiny 
leaflets  with  entire  margin  which  turn  to  a  brilliant  scarlet  or  orange  in  autumn.  This  species 
is  usually  found  in  swamps. 

RANGE — Ontario,    south    to   Florida,    west   to   Minnesota   and   Louisiana. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Occasional  and  local  in  the  eastern,  southern  and  central 
parts.  Rarer  in  other  parts. 

HABITAT — Prefers    low    grounds    and    swamps.      Occasionally    found    on    moist    slopes. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  shrub  or  small  tree  is  one  of  our  most  poisonous 
plants.  The  wood  which  it  produces  is  of  no  commercial  importance.  Some  people  are  entirely 
immune  to  its  poisonous  principles,  while  others  are  affected  by  it  upon  handling  it  while  a  few 
need  only  to  walk  by  it.  It  is  claimed  all  traces  of  the  poison  can  be  removed  by  washing  the 
parts  thoroughly  with  a  saturated  alcoholic  solution  of  acetate  of  lead  immediately  or  a  few 
hours  after  the  contact.  Pure  alcohol  is  also  valuable  as  a  wash  if  applied  shortly  after  contact. 


PLATE  XCVIII.    POISON  SUMACH. 

1.  Branch  with  immature  and  mature  leaves,    and  a  staminate  flower  panicle,    y   J. 

2.  A  pistillate  flower  panicle,   x  5. 

3.  A  section  of  a  branch  with  two  drooping  clusters  of  fruit,    x   J. 

4.  A  single  fruit,    enlarged. 

5.  A  winter  twig,   x  J. 

6.  An  axillary  bud  and  a  leaf-scar  with  bundle-scars,   enlarged. 


PLATE  XCIX.     STAGHORN  SUMACH. 


. 

A   pistillate   flower,    enlarged. 
An  erect  cone-like  fruit  cluster     x 
A    single   hairy   fruit,    enlarged 


A  hairy  winter  twig,   x 
A 
8.  A 


Wlth 


185 


STAGHORN  SUMACH. 
Rhus  typhina,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — A  shrub  or  small  tree  usually  reaching  a  height  of  10-20  ft.  but  may  reach  a  height 
of  40  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  15  inches.  Trunk  usually  short,  bearing  a  broad  flat-topped  crown. 
Lateral  branches  are  decidedly  ascending. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  rough,  dark  brown,  sometimes  scaly;  on  younger  trunks  and  branches 
smooth,  thin,  somewhat  papery,  covered  with  numerous  lenticels  which  later  develop  into  rough 
dots.  Rich  in  tannin. 

TWIGS— Covered  for  3  years  with  brown  to  black  velvety  pubescence,  later  smooth,  stout, 
flumsy;  if  cut  or  punctured  exude  a  milky  Juice,  which  turns  black  upon  exposure.  Twigs  are 
often  frozen  back  in  winter,  covered  with  conspicuous  orange-colored  lenticels,  and  contain  a  large 
yellowish-brown  pith. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  bud  absent;  conical,  spherical  obtuse,  covered  with  dense  rusty 
hairs. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  compound,  16-24  inches  long,  with  stout  wingless  petiole  and  11-31  leaflets. 
Leaflets  oblong,  2-5  inches  long,  nearly  sessile,  acute  at  apex,  serrate  on  margin,  rounded  or 
heart-shaped  at  base;  when  mature  smooth,  dark  green  above,  and  pale  beneath. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  nearly  encircle  bud,  large,  conspicuous,  U-shaped,  contain  scattered 
bundle-scars  sometimes  grouped  in  3s. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  May  or  June.  Occur  in  dense  yellowish-green  panicles.  Staminate 
panicles  are  about  8-12  inches  long  and  5-6  inches  broad.  Pistillate  panicles  are  only  5-8  inches 
long  but  more  compact. 

FRUIT — Arranged  in  compact,  erect,  cone-like,  red  clusters  which  are  5-8  inches  long,  2-3 
inches  broad  and  persist  far  into  winter.  Only  plants  bearing  pistillate  flowers  produce  fruit. 
The  single  fruit  is  a  spherical  drupe  covered  with  red  hairs  and  contains  a  small  hard  seed. 
Sumachs  with  red  fruit  are  not  poisonous. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  brittle,  soft,  orange-colored,  streaked  with  green,  rather  satiny  to 
touch.  Sapwood  broad  and  white.  Weighs  27.15  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  manufacture  of 
spiles,  cups,  napkin  rings,  and  balls  for  darning  stockings. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Staghorn  Sumach,  also  known  as  Velvet  Sumach, 
can  be  distinguished  from  all  our  native  Sumachs  by  its  velvety  pubescent  twigs.  The  Smooth 
Sumach  (Rhus  glabra  L.)  is  usually  smaller  and  has  its  twig  covered  with  a  bloom,  but  not  with 
pubescence.  The  Dwarf  Sumach  (Rhus  copallina)  has  winged  petioles  and  a  watery  juice 
while  the  Staghorn  Sumach  has  no  winged  leaf -petioles  but  has  a  milky  juice.  The  Poison  Sumach 
has  a  terminal  bud,  white  drooping  fruit,  entire  leaf-margins,  leaf-scars  which  do  not  encircle 
buds,  and  frequents  swamps,  while  the  Staghorn  Sumach  has  no  terminal  bud,  has  red  and  erect 
fruit  clusters,  serrate  leaf-margins,  leaf-scars  which  almost  encircle  buds,  and  frequents  dry 
soils. 

RANGE — New  Brunswick   to  Minnesota,   and  southward  to  Georgia  and   Alabama. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Locally  throughout  the  State.  Very  common  in  eastern 
and  southern  parts.  Rarer  in  northern  and -western  parts. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  on  fertile  dry  upland  soil.  Rarer  on  border  of  swamps  and  streams. 
Frequents  abandoned  fields  and  fences. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  is  of  little  commercial  importance.  The 
wood  is  rarely  used.  The  bark  of  the  stem  and  roots,  and  the  leaves  are  rich  in  tannin.  It  IB 
occasionally  planted  for  ornamental  purposes. 


186 


DWARF  SUMACH. 
Rhus  copallina,  Linnaeus. 


FORM — A  small  shrub  rarely  more  than  6-S  ft.  tall,  becomes  a  tree  only  in  Arkansas  and 
Texas. 

BARK — Rather  thin,  light  to  reddish-brown,  often  smooth;  on  older  specimens  may  peel  off 
Into  papery  layers,  frequently  roughened  by  large,  elevated,  brownish  projections. 

TWIGS — At  first  hairy,  somewhat  zigzag  and  greenish-red;  later  smooth,  reddish-brown,  and 
roughened  by  prominent  leaf-scars  and  large  dark-colored  lenticels;  frequently  roughened  by  large 
elevated  rugosities. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  bud  absent;  axillary,  small,  spherical,  covered  with  rusty  brown 
pubescence. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  compound,  6-12  inches  long,  with  winged  petioles  and  9-21  leaflets. 
Leaflets  ovate-lanceolate,  acute  at  apex,  often  unequal  and  wedge-shaped  at  base,  entire  on 
margin  except  near  apex  where  a  few  serrate  teeth  may  be  found,  usually  smooth  above  and 
pubescent  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  broadly  crescent-shaped  to  inversely  triangular;  partly  surround  buds; 
contain  a  few  clusters  of  bundle-scars  often  occurring  in  3s. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  July.  Produced  in  axillary  or  terminal  panicels.  Staminate  and 
pistillate  usually  occur  on  different  plants. 

FRUIT — Matures  about  5-6  weeks  after  flowers.  Usually  arranged  in  dense,  stout,  pubescent, 
often  persistent,  red  clusters.  The  individual  fruit  is  spherical,  about  4  of  an  inch  across, 
covered  with  a  hairy  red  coat  and  contains  a  smooth  orange-colored  seed. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  soft,  coarse-grained,  light  brown,  richly  striped  with  yellow  and 
black.  Weight  and  uses  are  about  the  same  as  the  Staghorn  Sumach. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Dwarf  Sumach,  also  known  as  Mountain  Sumach 
can  be  distinguished  from  our  other  native  species  of  Sumach  by  its  winged  leaf-petioles  and  its 
leaflets  which  are  entire-margined  except  near  the  apex.  Its  branches  contain  a  watery  Juice 
while  the  branches  of  the  Staghorn  and  Smooth  Sumach  contain  a  milky  juice.  Its  branches 
are  smooth  while  those  of  the  Smooth  Sumach  are  covered  with  a  bloom  and  those  of  the 
Staghorn  Sumach  with  a  velvety  pubescence.  It  has  neither  terminal  buds  nor  white  fruit 
like  the  Poison  Sumach. 

RANGE — Maine   to   Florida,    west   to   Nebraska  and   Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION   IN    PENNSYLVANIA— Local,    often    common,    throughout    the    State. 

HABITAT — Common  on  dry  hillsides  and  ridges.  Occasional  on  rich  bottomlands.  Frequents 
abandoned  fields. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Dwarf  Sumach  is  merely  a  shrub  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi  and  consequently  of  no  commercial  importance.  It  may  be  utilized  in  landscape  gar- 
dening on  account  of  its  dwarf  form  and  attractive  autumnal  foliage.  It  reaches  tree-size  in 
Arkansas  and  Texas. 


PLATE  C.     DWARF  SUMACH. 

1.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  with  winged  rachises,   and  a  panicle  of  flowers,    x 

2.  A  branch  with  an  erect  cluster  of  fruit,   x  i. 

3.  A   single   hairy   fruit,    enlarged. 

4.  A   winter   twig,    x   J. 

5.  A  leaf -scar  with  bundle-scars,    enlarged. 


PLATE   CI.     TREE   OF   HEAVEN. 

1.  A  mature  leaf,   x  J. 

2.  Lower  side  of  two  leaflets   showing  glands,    x  1. 

3.  A  panicle  of  flowers,  x  £. 

4.  A  small  cluster  of  winged  seeds,    x  J. 

5.  A  seedling,    x   J. 

6.  A  winter  twig,  x  5. 

7.  A  bud  and  a  leaf -scar  with  bundle-scars,   natural  size. 


187 

TREE  OF  HEAVEN. 
Ailanthus  glandulosa,  Desfontaines. 

FAMILY  AND  GENUS  DESCRIPTION— The  Quassia  family,  Simarubaceae,  comprises  about 
30  genera  with  150  species  found  mostly  in  the  tropics  and  the  warmer  parts  of  both  the  east- 
ern and  western  hemispheres.  Three  genera,  each  with  1  tree  species,  are  native  to  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  United  States.  A  single  species  of  a  fourth  genus  has  been  introduced  from 
China.  This  genus,  Ailanthus,  contains  7  species  all  native  to  eastern  Asia.  No  member  of  this 
family  is  native  to  Pennsylvania. 

FORM — May  reach  a  height  of  100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  3  ft.,  but  usually  much  smaller. 
Trunk  usually  short,  but  sometimes  long,  bearing  stout  branches  with  few  branchlets.  Crown 
wide,  high,  and  flat-topped. 

BARK — On  younger  trunks  smooth,  thin,  light  gray,  somewhat  roughened  with  fissures.  Ridges 
usually  dark  and  stand  in  strong  contrast  with  the  light  fissures.  On  old  trunks  thin,  close, 
roughened  with  diamond-shaped  fissures,  dark  gray  and  sometimes  black.  See  Fig.  99. 

TWIGS — Stout,    clumsy,    yellowish-green    to    reddish-brown,    covered    with   a   fine  velvety   down 

and    numerous,    longitudinally-elongated,    ochre-oolored,    scattered    lenticels.     Pith  large,    rather 

hard,    light  brown.     When   broken  or  crushed   the  twigs  give  forth  a   rank  smell.  Longitudinal 
striations  may  appear  after  outer  covering  of  twigs  scales  off. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  bud  absent;  false  terminal  bud  often  present;  reddish-brown, 
downy,  about  1/8-1/6  of  an  inch  long,  located  in  notch  of  upper  surface  of  the  leaf-scar, 
covered  with  scales;  the  two  outer  scales  do  not  quite  cover  the  bud,  hence  they  leave  a 
narrow  slit  running  parallel  with  the  twig. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  compound,  14-3  ft.  long,  composed  of  11-41  leaflets.  Leaflets  ovate- 
lanceolate,  3-5  inches  long,  acuminate  at  apex,  truncate  to  heart-shaped  at  base,  almost  entire 
with  a  few  coarse  teeth  towards  the  base  of  the  leaf.  Glands  may  be  present  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  leaflets  near  or  on  the  small  basal  lobes. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  large,  conspicuous,  more  than  2-ranked,  heart-shaped,  lighter  In 
color  than  twig,  have  raised  margins  and  contain  about  8-14  conspicuous  bundle-scars  arranged  in 
a  V-shaped  line.  Bundle-scars  sometimes  curved  or  compounded. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  June  when  leaves  are  fully  developed.  Staminate  and  pistillate 
flowers  occur  on  separate  trees.  Individual  flowers  small,  green,  and  arranged  in  terminal 
panicles.  The  staminate  have  a  very  unpleasant  odor. 

FRUIT — Borne  only  on  female  or  pistillate  trees  in  conspicuous  clusters  which  often  persist 
far  into  winter.  Each  fruit  consists  of  a  spirally  twisted  wing  about  1J  Inches  long  and  i 
of  an  inch  wide,  in  the  center  of  which  a  small  seed  is  located. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  with  conspicuous  rays;  white  to  pale  yellow,  light,  soft,  weak,  and  open- 
grained.  Used  in  cabinet  work,  for  wooden  ware,  and  for  charcoal. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Tree  of  Heaven,  also  known  as  Paradise  Tree, 
Ailanthus,  Haven-Wood  and  Chinese  Sumach,  can  be  distinguished  in  winter  by  its  stout 
twigs  which  are  covered  with  fine  down  and  conspicuous  scattered  lenticels,  and  contain  a  large 
light  brown  pith;  twigs  are  roughened  by  large  heart-shaped  leaf-scars  containing  a  curved  line 
of  bundle-scars.  The  small  gaping  downy  buds  situate  in  the  notch  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
leaf-scars,  are  also  characteristic.  In  summer  the  large  alternate  leaves  with  11-41  leaflets  which 
often  have  glands  on  the  lower  surface,  are  distinctive.  The  bark  cannot  be  confused  with  that 
of  any  native  tree. 

RANGE — Native  of  China.  Widely  planted  in  Ontario,  Canada  and  the  northeastern  United 
States.  Frequently  it  has  escaped  cultivation  and  is  found  in  abandoned  fields,  in  forest  borders, 
and  along  fences. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Naturalized  extensively  in  the  eastern,  southern,  cen- 
tral and  western  parts  of  the  State.  Escaped  cultivation  in  many  places.  Thickets  of  it  are 
found  in  Franklin  county.  In  some  places  it  ts  not  only  found  in  the  open  fields  and  along 
fences  but  is  migrating  into  the  forest  with  the  hardwoods  and  pines. 

HABITAT — Tolerates  almost  any  kind  of  soil  and  dense  shade.  Its  rapid  growth  often 
enables  it  to  dominate  over  its  associates. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  tree  is  of  no  special  importance  as  a  forest  tree  and 
has  serious  demerits  as  a  shade  or  park  tree.  It  was  introduced  into  England  about  1751  by 
missionaries  and  from  there  it  was  soon  brought  to  America  and  first  planted  near  Philadelphia. 
At  first  it  was  a  very  popular  tree,  but  it  soon  lost  favor.  The  staminate  flowers  are  very  111 
smelling.  The  wood  Is  inferior  in  quality.  The  rapid  and  free  growth  of  the  root  sprouts 
makes  it  almost  impossible  to  eradicate  it  when  once  established.  Its  aggressive  migration 
into  field*  and  foreat  is  undesirable. 


188 


AMERICAN  HOLLY. 
Ilex  opaca,  Ait. 

FAMILY  AND  GENUS  DESCRIPTION— The  Holly  family,  Aquifolisceae,  comprises  3  genera 
with  about  290  species  of  small  trees  and  shrubs  distributed  in  temperate  and  tropical  regions. 
Two  genera.  Ilex  and  Nemopanthus,  are  native  to  Pennsylvania.  The  former  genus  is  repre- 
sented by  5  species  and  the  latter  by  1  species.  Two  of  the  5  species  of  the  genus  Ilex  are 
described  below.  The  Mountain  Holly,  Nemopanthus  mucronata,  is  usually  a  shrub  rarely  over 
10  ft.  in  height. 

FORM — Usually  a  small  tree  reaching  a  height  of  15-30  ft.,  but  may  attain  a  height  of  50  ft. 
with  a  diameter  of  3  feet.  It  Ici  small  In  the  North,  but  becomes  larger  in  the  South.  Trunk 
short  and  bears  slender,  spreading  and  ascending  branches  which  form  a  conic  crown. 

BARK — Close,  white  or  grayish  or  yellowish-brown,  up  to  \  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  becoming 
rough  with  age. 

TWIGS — Rather  slender  finely  rusty  hairy  but  soon  become  smooth  and  light  brown,  covered 
by  a  few  inconspicuous  lenticels. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  one  present  and  pointed;  lateral  ones  are  short,  blunt-pointed,  and 
somewhat  downy. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  evergreen,  thick,  mostly  smooth,  flat,  oval,  with  wavy  margin 
and  spiny  teeth.  Petioles  are  short,  stout,  and  often  hardy.  Midrib  Is  very  prominent  on  the 
lower  surface  of  the  leaf. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  semi-oval,  rather  conspicuous,  with  raised  margin  containing  solitary 
bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  from  April  to  June.  The  staminate  and  pistillate  usually  occur  on  different 
trees.  The  staminate  are  2-9  on  a  common  stalk  while  the  pistillate  are  usually  solitary. 

FRUIT — A  bright  red  drupe,  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  smooth,  shining,  persisting  far  into 
winter;  containing  a  light  brown  nutlet  with  usually  4  ribs. 

WOOD — Diff  use-porous;  with  distinct  and  colorless  medullary  rays;  chalky -white  in  color, 
medium  in  weight,  hard,  tough,  not  strong,  close-grained.  Weighs  36.26  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 
Used  in  turnery, .  cabinet  making  and  interior  finishings,  and  for  keys  in  pianos  and  organs. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  American  Holly,  also  known  as  Holly  or  White 
Holly,  can  be  distinguished  at  any  season  of  t'ie  year  by  its  unique  leaves,  which  are  thick, 
flat,  and  oval,  have  wavy  margins  with  scattered  spiny  teeth  and  persist  for  2  or  more  years. 
Branches,  bearing  these  unique  leaves,  are  sold  extensively  about  Christmas  in  most  of  our 
northern  markets.  The  small  red  fruit,  often  persisting  far  into  winter,  is  also  distinctive. 
In  cultivation  one  often  finds  the  closely  related  European  Holly  (Ilex  Aquifolium)  which  has 
leaves  of  a  deeper  green  and  with  more  wavy  margins  which  have  translucent  edges.  The  berries 
of  the  European  species  are  deeper  red  in  color. 

RANGE — Maine,    through  Pennsylvania  to  Florida,   westward  to  Indiana,    Missouri   and  Texas. 

,  DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Very  rare  and  local.  Found  in  the  following  counties: 
Bucks,  Dauphin,  Delaware,  Chester,  Franklin,  Lancaster  and  York.  Only  one  specimen  is 
known  to  grow  wild  in  Franklin  county. 

HABITAT — Usually   found   in  moist  soil  near  water.     Prefers   shelterd   and   shaded   situations. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  American  Holly  -loes  not  produce  any  wood  of  com- 
mercial importance  in  this  State.  Immense  quantities  of  branches,  bearing  the  unique  and 
attractive  leaves  and  bright  red  berries,  are  used  for  decorative  purposes  during  the  Christmas 
season.  It  is  occasionally  planted  for  ornamental  purposes  because  it  U?  very  beautiful,  but  one 
should  remember  that  it  grows  slowly. 


PLATE  CII.     AMERICAN  HOLLY. 

1.  A  pistillate  flowering  branch,   x  |. 

2.  A   staminate   flowering   branch,    x   J. 

3.  A  fruiting  branch,  x  J. 

4.  Cross  section  of  a  fruit,  enlarged. 

6.  Longitudinal  section  of  a  fruit,   enlarged. 
6.  Section   of    a   twig,    enlarged. 


PLATE  CIII.     LARGE-LEAVED  HOLLY, 

1.  A   pistillate   flowering  branch,    x   J. 

2.  A  staminate  flowering  branch,   x  4. 

3.  A   fruiting   branch,    x  1.   • 

4.  A  winter  twig,   x   \. 

5.  Section    of    a    winter  twig,     enlarged. 


189 


LARGE-LEAVED  HOLLY. 
Ilex  monticola,  Gray. 

FORM — A  shrub  or  small  tree  usually  less  than  20  ft.  in  height  but  may  reach  a  height  of  40 

ft.   with  a   diameter  of   12   inches.     It  reaches  its   largest   size  In  North    and   in   South   Carolina. 

Trunk    short,    bearing   a    rather   wide   and    deep   crown   formed   by  slender,    spreading,    ascending 
branches. 

BARK — Thin,    light   brown,    rough,    warty,    covered   with   numerous   lenticels. 

TWIGS — Smooth,  reddish-brown,  becoming  dark  gray,  enlarged  at  nodes;  with  decurrent 
ridges  running  down  from  leaf-scars;  round,  marked  by  many  small  lenticels  at  first  indistinct 
but  later  conspicuous.  Pith  round,  narrow,  light  yellowish-green. 

BUDS — Alternate,  terminal  bud  present;  lateral  buds  often  superposed  and  covered  with 
gaping  scales;  broadly  ovate  to  globular,  small,  about  i  of  an  inch  long,  sharp-pointed  or 
occasionally  blunt-pointed.  Bud-scales  ovate,  keeled,  sharp-pointed,  light  brown,  finely  hairy 
at  apex. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  deciduous,  4-5  inches  long,  5-2  inches  wide,  ovate  or  lanceo- 
late-oblong, taper-pointed  at  apex,  sharply  serrate  on  margin,  tapering  or  rounded  at  base, 
thin,  smooth,  dark  green  above,  paler  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  elliptical  to  broadly  triangular,  very  small,  inclined  to  twig. 
Bundle-scars  solitary,  lunate  to  almost  circular. 

FLOWERS — Appear  on  short  lateral  stalks  about  June,  when  the  leaves  are  almost  developed; 
white  or  nearly  so,  small,  about  $  of  an  inch  across.  Staminate  clustered,  borne  upon 
pedicels  about  2/5  of  an  inch  long;  pistillate  solitary  or  few  in  a  cluster,  on  very  short 
pedicels. 

FRUIT — Matures  about  September.  Bright  scarlet,  globose,  about  2/5  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
containing  4-6  nutlets;  nutlets  narrowed  at  the  erds,  striate,  prominently  many-ribbed  on  the 
back. 

WOOD— Diffuse-porous;  hard  close-grained,  nearly  white.  In  general  resembles  that  of  the 
American  Holly,  page  188.  Weighs  about  41  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Not  found  on  the  market. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Mountain  Holly  may  be  distinguished  by  itg 
small  size,  its  small  clustered  white  flowers,  its  bright  scarlet  globose  clustered  fruit  with 
striate  many-ribbed  nutlets,  its  ovate  or  lanceolate-oblong,  smooth,  sharply-serrate,  dark 
green  deciduous  leaves,  its  small  leaf-scars  with  a  solitary  bundle-scar,  and  its  bitter  reddish- 
brown  twigs  marked  by  many  small  leuticels  and  decurrent  ridges  below  the  leaf-scars.  The 
closely  related  Black  Alder  or  Winterberry  (Ilex  verticillata;  has  many  characteristics  in 
common  with  this  species  but  may  be  distinguished  by  its  smooth  and  even  nutlets,  its  flowers 
which  are  all  short-stalked,  its  leaves  which  are  more  downy  on  the  lower  surface. 

RANGE— New    York    to    Georgia    and    Alabama. 

DISTRIBUTION  Df  PENNSYLVANIA— Rather  common  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  the 
State.  Rare  or  absent  in  other  parts. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  in  mountain  woods.  Prefers  rich,  moist,  often  rocky  situations. 
Frequently  occurs  in  shaded  places  under  a  dense  canopy  of  larger  trees. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  Sl'ECIES— This  tree  is  of  little  forestal  importance.  It  remains 
small,  grows  slowly  and  occurs  scattered  or  in  .imall  clumps.  Its  bright  foliage  and  brilliant 
fruit  recommend  it  for  ornamental  purposes.  It  reaches  tiee-size  only  in  the  South. 


190 


THE  MAPLE  FAMILY— ACERAOEAE. 

The  Maple  family  comprises  in  addition  to  the  Asiatic  genus  Dip- 
teronia,  with  only  1  species,  about  70  species,  all  of  which  are  in- 
cluded in  the  genus  Acer,  and  distributed  with  a  few  exceptions  in 
the  northern  hemisphere.  This  family  consists  mainly  of  trees  and 
a  few  shrubs.  The  members  of  this  family  are  used  more  than  those 
of  any  other  family  as  ornamental  and  shade  trees.  Further  charac- 
teristics of  the  family  are  included  in  the  description  of  the  sole 
American  genus  which  follows. 

THE  MAPLES— ACER,    (Tourn.)   L. 

This  genus  comprises  approximately  70  species  in  the  world,  with 
13  species  in  the  United  States  and  6  species  in  Pennsylvania.  A 
few  exotic  species  have  been  introduced  exclusively  for  ornamental 
and  shade  purposes.  The  commonest  exotic  species  are  the  Norway 
Maple  (Acer  platanoides  L.)  and  the  Sycamore  Maple  (Acer  Pseudo- 
platanus  L.).  On  account  of  their  abundance  and  wide  distribution 
in  this  State,  a  descriptive  page,  together  with  an  accompanying 
plate,  has  been  devoted  to  these  two  species. 

The  leaves  of  the  Maples  are  opposite,  usually  simple  or  in  a  few 
species  compound  with  3-5  leaflets,  and  are  shed  in  the  autumn.  The 
flowers  are  regular  or  polygamous,  rarely  perfect,  and  appear  before, 
with  or  after  the  leaves.  The  time  at  which  the  flowers  appear  aids 
considerably  in  distinguishing  the  various  species  from  each  other. 
Some  trees  bear  only  staminate  flowers,  while  others  bear  only  pis- 
tillate, with  the  result  that  one  may  occasionally  find'  a  mature  tree 
which  does  not  produce  any  fruit.  The  flowers  are  pollinated  by  in- 
sects, which  are  attracted  in  hordes  by  the  aromatic  pollen-bearing 
blossoms.  The  fruit  is  composed  of  a  pair  of  winged  seeds  joined  to- 
gether to  form  the  well-known  maple  key  or  samara,  which  matures 
in  early  or  late  summer,  depending  upon  the  species.  The  fruit 
which  matures  in  early  summer  germinates  at  once,  while  that  which 
matures  in  late  summer  remains  dormant  over  winter  and  germinates 
the  following  spring.  Wind  is  the  chief  agent  which  disseminates 
the  seeds. 

The  Maples  are  separated  into  two  classes  with  reference  to  their 
commercial  value,  Hard  Maple  and  Soft  Maple.  This  classification 
is  based  upon  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  wood.  The  wood 
of  the  Maple  is  diffuse-porous  with  rather  small  medullary  rays, 
usually  fine-grained,  dense,  and  in  some  species  hard  and  beautifully 
curled  and  figured,  which  makes  it  especially  prized  for  interior 
finish  and  cabinet  work.  Most  species  yield  a  saccharine  sap  which 
may  be  concentrated  into  maple  syrup  or  maple  sugar. 

Within  a  family  one  may  often  find  a  wide  variation  of  plant  or- 
gans, but  the  genus  Acer  possibly  presents  a  wider  range  or  a  greater 


191 

variation  in  its  organs  than  any  other  genus  of  trees  found  in  this 
State.  The  leaves  may  be  simple  or  compound,  large  or  small,  smooth 
or  hairy.  The  twigs  may  be  green,  brown,  or  red.  The  flowers  may 
be  in  small  lateral  clusters,  in  long  terminal  racemes,  or  in  drooping 
clusters;  appear  before,  with,  or  after  the  leaves.  Their  color  may 
be  green,  yellow,  or  red.  The  fruit,  while  similar  in  all  the  species 
so  far  as  type  is  concerned,  varies  considerably  in  size,  divergence 
of  the  wing,  and  arrangement.  Their  habitat  also  varies,  some  like 
the  Red  Maple,  preferring  moist  locations,  while  the  Mountain  Maple 
frequents  rocky  situations.  In  addition  to  these  general  differences 
among  the  species,  a  greater  difference  becomes  evident  as  one 
studies  the  detailed  description  of  the  species  which  follow: 

SUMMER  KEY  TO  THE   SPECIES. 

Page. 
1.    Leaves     simple * 2 

1.  Leaves  plnnately  compound A,   Negundo         197 

2.  Leaf  petioles  with  acrid  milky  sap A.   platanoidl&s         198 

2.  Leaf  petioles  without  acrid  milky  sap 8 

3.  Flowers     in     terminal     racemes 4 

3.  Flowers   in   lateral   clusters,    appearing   before   or   with   the   leaves    6 

4.  Flowers   appear    with    the    leaves A.    Pseudo-platanus         198 

4.  Flowers    appear    after   the    leaves,    5 

5.  Flowers  in  erect  racemes;  leaves  coarsely  serrate  and  usually  3-lobed, — A.   spicatum        193 

5.  Flowers   in   drooping   racemes;    leaves   finely   terrate,   3-lobed   at   apex,    at   first  brown 

pubescent    beneath,     A.     pennsylvanioum        192 

6.  Flowers   opening    before    the   leaves,,    the    drooping    fruit    ripening    in    spring    or    early 

summer,      £ 7 

6.  Flowers    opening    with    the    leaves,     drooping    fruit    ripening    in    summer    or    early 

autumn,     A,     saocharum        194 

7.  Flowers  with  petals;   leaves  bright  green   above,    pale  green   nearly   glabrous  beneath 

3-5-lobed;    fruit    keys    incurved A.    rubrum         196 

7.    Flowers    without    petals;     leaves    green    above    whitish    or    silvery    beneath,     deeply 

5-lobed;    fruit   keys   divergent A.    saccharinum        195 

WINTER  KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES. 

1.    Buds    stalked    with    few    exposed    scales 2 

1.  Buds  sessile  or  nearly  so,   with  6  or  more  exposed   scales,    4 

2.  Buds    evidently-stalked;    bark    streaked    longitudinally    with    white    lines,     

A.    pennsylvanioum        192 

2.  Buds   short-stalked;    bark    not    streaked   longitudinally   with   white    lines 3 

3.  Buds    small,    1/5    of    an    Inch    long    including    stalk;    twigs    reddish-brown    to    dingy 

gray;     pith    brown A.     spicatum         193 

3.  Buds  large,   ovoid,    the  terminal  one  acute  the  lateral  obtuse  and   closely   appressed; 

twigs   greenish-purple   and    glaucous;    pith    light,    .A.    Negundo         197 

4.  Buds    with     8-16    exposed     scales,     brown,     scute,     non-collateral,     leaf-scars    nearly 

encircle     stem A.     saccharum         194 

4.  Buds  with  6-8  exposed  scales,   red  or  green,   obtuse,    5 

5     Terminal  buds  small,    generally  less   than  1/5  of  an  Inch   long;   terminal  and   lateral 
buda   of   same   size;    collateral    buds   present 6 

5.  Terminal    buds    large,    generally    over    1/5    of    an    Inch    long;    terminal    buds    larger 

than     lateral;     collateral     buds     absent 7 

6.  Twigs  red  and  lustrous:  bark  rough  but  not  flaking  in  large  pieces A.  rubrum        196 

6.  Twigs  bright  chestnut-brown;  bark  falling  away  in  thin  large  flakes,    A.   saccharinum         195 

7,  Buds    red;     leaf -scars    encircle    stein;     lenticels    scattered;     lateral    buds    appressed; 

bark   black,    fissured,    not   scaly A,    platanoideg         198 

7.    Buds   green;    leaf -scars   do   not   encircle   stem;    lenticels   numerous;    lateral   buds   pro- 
jecting;   bark    brownish    and    scaly,     A.    Pseudo-platanus         198 


192 


STRIPED  MAPLE. 
Acer  pennsylvanicum,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — Usually  from  10-25  ft.  In  height  with  a  diameter  of  about  6-12  inches,  but  may 
attain  a  height  of  40  feet.  Trunk  usually  short  dividing  into  slender  and  straight  branches 
which  form  a  deep  and  broad  crown. 

BARK — Thin,  rather  smooth,  greenish  or  reddish-brown,  conspicuously  marked  with  longi- 
tudinal white  streaks;  later  becomes  rougher,  darker,  and  less  streaked.  See  Fig.  63. 

TWIGS — Smooth,  stout,  at  first  greenish,  later  red,  with  very  few  inconspicuous  lenticels, 
and  brown  pith.  Season's  growth  marked  by  2  or  sometimes  3  dark  lines  encircling  the  twig, 
formed  by  fallen  outer  bud- scales.  White  longitudinal  streaks  appear  the  second  season. 

BUDS — Opposite,  evidently-stalked,  large,  about  2/5  of  an  inch  long  excluding  stalk, 
tapering  but  blunt-pointed,  red,  glossy,  angular,  covered  by  a  single  pair  of  red,  smooth,  val- 
vate  scales  enclosing  a  few  pairs  of  smaller  and  lighter  scales.  Outer  scales  are  smooth 
on  surface  with  ciliate  margins  while  the  inner  scales  are  hairy  as  shown  in  opposite  plate. 
Terminal  buds  are  large  while  lateral  buds  are  smaller  and  closely  appressed. 

LEAVES — Opposite,  simple,  goose-foot-like,  3-lobed  at  apex,  finely  serrate  on  margin,  rounded 
at  base,  rusty -pubescent  below.  Petioles  long,  grooved,  with  enlarged  bases. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  broadly  U-shaped,  nearly  encircle  stem;  adjacent  edges  form  rather 
blunt  teeth  which  are  separated  by  a  ridge.  Bundle-scars  usually  3,  often  subdivided  into  5-8. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  May  or  June  after  the  leaves  are  full  grown  in  drooping  terminal 
racemes.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  occur  on  same  plant  but  in  different  clusters. 

FRUIT — Matures  in  September  in  drooping  racemes;  wings  of  the  keys,  thin,  very  divergent, 
about  J  of  an  inch  long,  marked  on  one  side  of  seed  with  a  depression. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  soft,  close-grained,  light  brown  with  wide  zone  of  sapwood.  Seldom 
used  commercially.  Weighs  33.02  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Striped  Maple,  also  known  as  Moosewood  and 
Whistlewood,  can  be  readily  distinguished  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  by  the  light  longitudinal 
streaks  on  the  branches  and  trunk.  They  often  appear  the  second  year  and  persist  for 
many  years  on  the  trunk.  In  winter  the  large,  evidently-stalked,  valvate,  and  red  buds 
together  with  the  smooth  branches  and  brown  pith  are  characteristic.  In  summer  the  drooping 
raceme  of  flowers  and  the  goose-foot-like  leaves  with  their  finely  serrate  margins  and  rusty 
pubescence  on  the  lower  surface  are  distinctive. 

RANGE — From  Nova  Scotia  west  to  Minnesota,  south  especially  along  the  mountains  to 
Georgia. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Rather  common  locally  in  the  mountainous  parts  of 
the  State  especially  on  shaded  slopes  and  in  deep  ravines.  Very  common  in  Mifflin,  Centre, 
Blair,  and  Huntingdon  counties. 

HABITAT — It  prefers  moist,  cool,  shaded,  often  rocky  mountain  slopes. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  wood  is  of  practically  no  commercial  value.  The 
chief  value  of  the  tree  is  its  attractive  ornamental  qualities  both  as  an  individual  tree  and  as 
a  component  of  the  understory  of  the  forest  structure. 


PLATE  CIV.     STRIPED  MAPLE. 

1.  Branch  with  drooping  raceme  of  staminate  flowers,   x  *. 

2.  Branch  with  drooping  raceme  of  pistillate  flowers,   x  I. 

3.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  and  drooping  raceme  of  fruit,    x  5. 

4.  A  maple  key  with  exposed  seeds,   x  |. 

5.  Section  of  winter  branch   showing  striped   bark,   buds,   and  leaf-scars,    x  i. 

6.  Terminal  section  of  winter  twig  showing  evidently  stalked  buds  with  outer  pair  of  bud  scales 

separated,  exposing  the  pubescent  inner  scales,   natural  size. 

7.  Section  of  winter  twig  showing  opposite  and  stalked  buds,   and  leaf-scars  with  bundle-scars,  x  }, 


PLATE  CV.     MOUNTAIN  MAPLE. 


1.  Branch    with    mature    leaves    and    two    erect 

racemes  of  flowers,  x  J. 

2.  Branch  with  a  mature  leaf  and  a  raceme  of 

fruit,  x  1. 

3.  A  maple  key  with  exposed  seeds,  x  j. 


slightly  enlarged. 

twig  with  stalked  buds,   ler 


5.  Winter'  twig  with  stalked  buds,   lenticels  and 

leaf -scars    with   bundle-scars,    x   J. 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,    enlarged. 


193 


MOUNTAIN  MAPLE. 
Acer  spicatum,  Lambert. 

FORM — A  shrub  or  small  tree  sometimes  attaining  height  of  35  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  11 
inches.  Usually  a  shrub  growing  in  clumps  oa  rocky  soil.  Trunk  usually  short  and  bears 
rather  straight,  slender  and  upright  branches. 

BARK — Thin,    rather   smooth,    brown   or   grayish-brown   mottled   with    dingy-gray    blotches. 

TWIGS— Slightly  hairy,  at  first  reddish-purple  on  exposed  side  and  yellowish-green  on 
shaded  side,  later  bright  red  and  then  changing  to  grayish-brown,  covered  with  few  scattered 
lenticels;  contain  brown  pith,  and  are  encircled  by  2  or  3  dark  rings  formed  by  the  scars  of 
fallen  bud-scales. 

BUDS — Opposite,  short-stalked,  rather  small,  about  1  of  an  inch  long  including  stalk; 
terminal  bud  larger  and  more  acute-pointed  than  lateral  appressed  buds;  one  pair  or  sometimes 
two  pairs  of  more  or  less  hairy,  grayish  or  greenish  scales  visible. 

LEAVES — Opposite,  simple,  3-5-lobed,  coarsely  serrate  on  margin,  cordate  at  base,  some- 
what hairy  on  lower  surface.  Petioles  long,  slender,  and  enlarged  at  base. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  V-shaped,   hollow,   with  3  bundle-scars,   and  nearly  encircle  stem. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  June  after  the  leaves  are  full  grown,  In  erect  terminal  racemes. 
Staminate  flowers  occur  usually  at  the  top  and  the  pistillate  at  the  base  of  the  raceme. 

FRUIT — Matures  in  September  in  drooping  racemes;  wings  of  the  keys  somewhat  divergent, 
about  £  of  an  inch  long,  the  seed-bearing  part  strongly  striated. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  soft,  close-grained,  light  to  reddish-brown  with  wide  zone  of  light 
sapwood.  Seldom  used  commercially.  Weighs  33.22  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Mountain  Maple  is  essentially  a  shrubby  spe- 
cies growing  in  small  clumps,  and  can  be  distinguished  from  most  species  of  Maple  •  by  its 
stalked,  few-scaled  winter  buds,  erect  raceme  of  flowers,  hairy-purplish  to  greenish  twigs, 
and  simple,  3-5  lobed  coarsely  serrate  leaves.  It  differs  from  the  closely  related  Striped  Maple 
in  the  absence  of  light-striped  bark  and  brown  pubescence  on  the  lower  sides  of  the  leaves, 
and  in  the  presence  of  pubescence  on  the  branches,  and  smaller  often  gaping  buds. 

RANGE — Newfoundland  to  Manitoba,  south  to  Michigan,  Pennsylvania,  and  along  the 
mountains  to  Georgia. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  locally  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  Very  rare  and 
local  in  the  eastern'  and  western  parts.  Rather  common  in  the  mountainous  parts. 

HABITAT — It  prefers  moist  rocky  hillsides.  Commonly  found  bordering  ravines.  It  de- 
mands the  shade  of  other  species.  Very  thrifty  on  the  moist  slopes  and  tops  of  the  southern 
Appalachian  Mountains. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — It  is  of  practically  no  commercial  importance  as  a 
timber  tree,  but  is  valuable  as  a  soil  protector  on  rock  slopes  where  a  protection  forest  Is 
desirable.  This  species  is  planted  very  extensively  for  ornamental  purposes. 


13 


194 


SUGAR  MAPLE. 
Acer  saccharum,  Marshall. 

FORM — A  large  timber  tree  attaining  a  maximum  height  of  120  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  5  feet. 
Open  grown  trees  have  short  trunks  bearing  stout,  rather  erect  branches  which  form  a 
spreading,  egg-shaped,  often  round-topped  crown.  Trees  in  closed  stands  have  long,  straight, 
clean  trunks  bearing  shallow,  round  crowns  with  large  limbs. 

BARK — On  branches  and  young  trunks  .smooth  and  light  brown;  on  older  trunks  brown, 
deeply  channelled  Into  long  irregular  plates  or  flakes  which  often  loosen  vertically  along 
the  side.  See  Fig.  62. 

TWIGS — Slender,  smooth,  reddish-brown  to  orange-brown,  covered  with  numerous  pale  lenti- 
cels. 

BUDS — Opposite,  brown,  sharp-pointed,  conical,  hairy  at  apex;  terminal  bud  about  twice  as 
long  as  appressed  lateral  ones;  covered  by  overlapping  scales,  with  from  8-16  of  them  exposed. 

LEAVES — Opposite,  simple,  usually  5-lobed,  with  a  sparsely  toothed  margin  and  round- 
based  sinuses,  cordate  at  base,  thin  in  texture,  8-5  inches  long  and  greater  in  width.  Mature 
leaves  are  bright  green  above  and  pale  green  beiow. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  V-shaped  to  U-shaped,  nearly  encircling  stem.  Bundle-scars  usually 
3,  in  a  lunate  line. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  April  and  May  with  the  leaves,  in  drooping  corymbs  both  from  the 
terminal  mixed  buds  and  the  lateral  propagative  buds.  The  staminate  and  pistillate  occur 
in  different  clusters. 

FRUIT — Matures  about  September;  clustered,  borne  on  drooping  stalks;  wings  of  the  keys 
about  5-1  inch  long,  parallel,  or  slightly  divergent. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  heavy,  hard,  olose-grained,  with  fine  surface,  light  brown,  to  reddish. 
Used  for  Interior  finish,  furniture,  shoe  lasts,  railroad  ties.  Abnormal  modifications  of  the 
structure  of  the  wood  known  as  Curly  Maple  and  Bird's  Eye  Maple  are  rather  common  and 
especially  prized  in  cabinet  making.  Weighs  -18.0S  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Sugar  Maple,  also  known  as  Hard  Maple  and 
Rock  Maple,  can  be  distinguished  in  summer  from  the  other  Maples  by  Its  large,  simple 
leaves  which  are  thin  in  texture  and  have  their  lobes  coarsely  toothed.  The  flowers  appear 
with  the  leaves  while  those  of  the  Red  Maple  and  the  Silver  Maple  appear  before,  and  those 
of  the  Mountain  Maple  and  the  Striped  Maple  after  the  leaves.  The  fruit  clusters  of  the 
Sugar  Maple  are  usually  developed  from  terminal  buds  while  those  of  the  Red  Maple  and 
Silver  Maple  are  developed  from  lateral  buds.  The  fruit  of  the  Sugar  Maple  does  not  mature 
until  September  and  may  often  persist  Into  the  winter  while  the  fruit  of  the  Red  Maple  and 
Silver  Maple  matures  in  early  summer  and  germinates  at  once  after  falling  upon  the  ground. 
In  winter  the  Sugar  Maple  can  be  recognized  by  its  conical,  sharp-pointed,  brown  buds  with 
from  8-16  exposed  and  overlapping  scales,  and  by  the  slender  brown  twigs  marked  with  pale 
lenticels.  The  rough  furrowed  trunk  is  also  characteristic  of  older  trees. 

RANGE — Newfoundland    to    Manitoba,    south    to    Florida    and    Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Common,  especially  in  the  northern,  western,  and  eastern 
parts  of  the  State.  It  is  possibly,  next  to  Chestnut,  the  commonest  tree  in  this  State. 

HABITAT — It  flourishes  best  on  well  drained  rich  soil,  but  will  thrive  even  when  the  soil 
is  not  rich.  It  is  common  on  low  ridges  at  the  base  of  mountains,  and  along  slopes.  It 
reaches  its  best  development  in  central  New  England,  New  York,  northern  Pennsylvania, 
and  the  Lake  States. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Sugar  Maple  is  a  valuable  timber  tree.  Its  im- 
portance is  being  realized  more  as  its  wood  finds  new  uses.  The  process  of  timber  impregna- 
tion has  raised  the  value  of  the  wood  of  this  species.  It  is  not  only  valuable  as  a  timber 
tree  but  produces  annually  a  large  quantity  of  maple  sugar  and  maple  syrup,  and  in  addition 
Is  one  of  our  most  attractive  ornamental  trees. 


PLATE  CVI.     SUGAR  MAPLE. 


1.  Branch  with  immature  leaves   and   staminate 

blossoms,    x  i. 

2.  Staminate  flower  with  calyx,   enlarged. 

3.  Longitudinal  section  of  staminate  flower,    en- 

larged. 

4.  Branch    with    immature   leaves    and    pistillate 

blossoms,    x  1. 

5.  Pistillate  flower  with   calyx,    enlarged. 


6.  Longitudinal    section    of    flower    with    both    a 

pistil    and    stamens,    enlarged. 

7.  Branch    with    mature    leaves    and    cluster    of 

fruit,   x  1. 

8.  A  maple  key  with  exposed  seeds,  x  |. 

9.  Winter    twig    showing    lenticels,     leaf -scars, 

bud-scale  scars,    and  sharp-pointed  opposite 
buds,    x  i. 


PLATE  CVII.     SILVER  MAPLE. 


1.  Flowering   branch,    x    J. 

2.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  and  mature  fruit, 

x  4. 

3.  A   wing  of  a  maple  key   with   exposed   seed, 

x  1. 


4.  A  seed,   enlarged. 

5.  End  view  of  a  seed,    enlarged. 

6.  A  winter  twig  showing  buds,    lenticels,    leaf- 

scars,  bud-scale  scars  and  bundle-scars,  x  1. 


195 


SILVER  MAPLE. 
Acer  saccharinum,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — Usually  a  tree  about  50-60  ft.  in  height  but  may  attain  a  maximum  height  of  120 
ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4J  feet.  Trunk  short  and  divides  into  lateral  branches  which  again 
freely  subdivide  and  form  a  broad  head.  Lateral  branches  have  pronounced  droop,  and 
distinct  upward  curve  at  the  end. 

BARK — On  branches  and  young  trunks  smooth  and  gray;  on  old  trunks  brown  with  a  some 
what  furrowed  surface  separating  into  thin  flakes  which  are  fastened  at  the  center  and  loose 
at  both  ends. 

TWIGS — Somewhat  slender,  glogsy,  at  first  green,  later  bright  chestnut-brown,  covered 
with  numerous  light  lenticelt. 

BUDS — Opposite,  red,  obtuse-pointed,  sessile  or  short-stalked;  flower  buds  stout,  spherical, 
accessory,  covered  with  overlapping  scales,  6-3  of  which  may  be  exposed.  Margin  of  scales 
ciliated  and  often  light  in  color. 

LEAVES — Opposite,  simple,  5-lobed,  coarsely  toothed;  bright  green  on  upper  surface  and 
silvery-white  on  lower;  with  deep  round-based  sinuses. 

LEAF-SCABS — Opposite,  U-shaped  to  V-shaped,  not  encircling  stem.  Bundle-scars  3,  In  A 
lunate  line. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  March  or  April  before  the  leaves  are  out,  In  dense,  sessile,  axillary 
clusters.  Staininate  and  pistillate  occur  in  separate  clusters  sometimes  on  the  same,  some- 
times on  different  trees.  Petals  absent. 

FRUIT — Matures  about  May;  clustered  along  branchlets,  borne  on  slender  drooping  stalks; 
wings  of  the  keys  usually  from  1-2  inches  long,  divergent,  sometimes  straight,  or  curved. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  moderately  hard,  rather  brittle,  close-grained,  with  wide  sapwood. 
Used  for  flooring,  cheap  furniture,  and  paper  pulp.  Weighs  32.84  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Silver  Maple,  also  known  as  White  Maple, 
River  Maple,  and  Soft  Maple,  can  be  recognized  in  summer  by  its  leaves  with  a  silvery-white 
lower  surface  and  deep  round-based  sinuses.  In  winter  it  closely  resembles  the  Red  Maple 
but  may  be  distinguished  from  it  by  the  pungent  odor  of  the  broken  twigs  and  the  bright 
chestnut-brown  twigs.  The  bark  of  the  Silver  Maple  is  somewhat  furrowed  and  separates  into 
thin  flakes  which  are  loose  at  both  ends  and  fastened  in  the  middle.  The  lateral  branches  have 
a  pronounced  droop  and  a  distinct  upward  curve  at  the  ends.  This  may  sometimes  be  a  dis- 
tinctive character.  The  Red  Maple  and  the  Silver  Maple  are  distinguished  from  all  the  other 
Maples  of  the  State  by  the  numerous,  round,  red,  collateral  buds. 

RANGE — New   Brunswick   to   southern   Ontario,    south   to   Florida   and   Indian   Territory. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Occasional  and  local  throughout  the  State,  especially 
along  larger  streams.  One  of  the  prevailing  trees  along  the  lower  part  of  the  Conococheague  creek 
in  Franklin  county. 

HABITAT — It  prefers  a  moist  deep  soil  such  as  is  found  along  stream  banks.  It  will  exist 
In  drier  locations  but  not  attain  a  large  size. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Silver  Maple  is  a  very  attractive  ornamental  tree.  A 
few  special  ornamental  varieties  have  been  developed.  The  wood  is  brittle  and  consequently 
the  branches  are  apt  to  be  broken  off  during  a  storm.  This  defect  somewhat  checks  the 
planting  of  this  species  in  exposed  places.  It  is  a  rapid  grower.  The  wood  which  it  produces 
is  of  no  special  commercial  importance  and  consequently  it  has  little  to  recommend  it  for 
forestry  purposes,  except  that  it  forms  an  excellent  soil  cover  in  the  under-story  of  the  forest. 


196 


RED  MAPLE. 
Acer  rubrum,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — Usually  a  tree  about  50  ft.  high,  but  in  a  moist  habitat  sometimes  attains  a  height 
of  over  100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4  feet.  When  grown  in  the  open  it  branches  near  the 
ground  and  forms  a  deep,  broad,  dense  crown.  Upper  lateral  branches  are  rather  upright  while 
lower  ones  ffre  horizontal  and  slightly  turned  upwards  at  the  end. 

BARK — On  branches  and  young  trunks  smooth  and  gray;  on  old  trunks  dark  grayish,  thick, 
shaggy,  and  roughened  by  long  ridges  which  peel  off  in  long  plates.  See  Figs.  60  and  61. 

TWIGS — Somewhat  slender,  glossy,  at  first  green,  later  red,  covered  with  numerous  light 
lentlcels. 

BUDS — Similar  to  those  of  the  Silver  Maple.     See  page  195. 

LEAVES — Opposite,  simple,  3-5-lobed,  coarsely-toothed,  light  green  above,  pale  green  to 
whitish  below,  with  rather  shallow  sharp-based  sinuses. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  U-shaped  to  V-shaped,  not  encircling  stem.  Bundle-scars  3,  in  a 
lunate  line. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  March  or  April  before  the  leaves  are  out,  in  dense  sessile  axillary 
clusters.  Staminate  and  pistillate  occur  In  different  clusters,  on  the  same  or  different  trees. 
Petals  present. 

FRUIT — Matures  in  May  or  June;  clustered  and  borne  on  drooping  stems;  wings  of  the  keys 
usually  less  than  1  inch  long,  red  to  brown  in  color,  at  first  convergent  but  later  divergent. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rather  soft,  not  strong,  close-grained,  light  brown  with  wide  light 
sapwood.  Used  for  furniture,  in  turnery,  and  paper  pulp.  Weighs  38.5  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Red  Maple,  also  known  as  Soft  Maple,  Swamp 
Maple,  and  White  Maple,  can  be  recognized  in  summer  by  its  simple,  rather  small,  3-5-lobed, 
coarsely-toothed  leaves  which  are  rarely  silvery-white  underneath,  and  have  rather  shallow 
sharp-based  sinuses.  In  winter  it  closely  resembles  the  Silver  Maple,  but  may  be  distinguished 
by  its  red  lustrous  twigs  and  the  absence  of  a  pungent  odor,  from  broken  twigs.  In  winter 
these  two  closely  related  species  can  be  distinguished  from  the  Sugar  Maple  by  their 
numerous,  round,  red,  collateral  buds;  from  the  Striped  Maple  and  the  Mountain  Maple 
by  their  larger  size  and  the  absence  of  stalked  buds;  from  the  Ash-leaved  Maple  by  the 
absence  of  short-stalked  downy  buds  and  greenish  twig  covered  with  a  whitish  bloom.  The 
European  species,  both  Norway  Maple  and  Sycamore  Maple,  have  much  larger  buds  and 
stouter  twigs. 

RANGE — Nova    Scotia    to    Manitoba,    south    to    Florida    and    Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— -Common  locally  throughout  the  State,  especially 
in  regions  traversed  by  streams  and  in  wet  habitats. 

HABITAT — It  prefers  wet  soil,  often  found  in  swamps  but  also  frequents  drier  hillsides. 
Commonly  found  along  rivers,  creeks,  lakes,  in  swamps,  and  as  an  undergrowth  in  the  forest 
over  extensive,  and  often  rather  hilly  areas. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Red  Maple  produces  a  wood  which  at  present  Is 
of  little  commercial  importance.  It  may  in  time  become  more  valuable.  The  despised  species 
of  to-day  may  be  the  prized  species  of  to-morrow.  It  is  tolerant  of  shade  and  its  chief 
future  value  in  forestry  may  be  in  furnishing  soil  protection  as  a  member  of  the  under-story 
of  the  forest.  It  may  play  the  same  role  in  our  future  forest  that  Beech  is  playing  to-day 
in  the  intensively  managed  forests  of  Germany,  only  that  it  is  of  less  value  for  fuel. 


PLATE  CVIII.     RED  MAPLE. 


1.  Flowering  branch,  x  J. 

2.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  and  mature  fruit, 

z  i. 

3.  A  maple  key  with  exposed  seeds,  x  5. 

4.  A  winter  branch,   x  5. 


5.  Section   of   winter   twig   showing   lenticels,    a 

leaf -scar  and  a  gaping  lateral  bud,   natural 
size. 

6.  Section  of  twig  showing  conspicuous  lenticels 

and    a    cluster    of    accessory    buds,    natural 
size. 


PLATE  CIX.     ASH-LEAVED  MAPLE,  or  BOX  ELDER. 


1.  Branch   with   immature  leaves   and  staminate 

blossoms,   x  \. 

2.  A  drooping  raceme  of  pistillate  blossoms,  x  J. 

3.  Branch  with  mature  leaves  and  a  raceme  of 

mature  fruit,   x  J. 

4.  A  key  of  fruit  with  exposed  seeds,   x  5. 


5.  A   winter   twig,    x   J. 

6.  Section   of   a   winter   twig   showing   a  gaping 

bud     and     a     leaf -scar     with     bundle-scars, 
enlarged. 

7.  Diagramatic  section  of  a  twig  with  buds  and 

a    covering   leaf-base,    enlarged. 


197 


ASH-LEAVED  MAPLE,  or  BOX  ELDER. 
Acer  Negundo,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — A  medium-sized  tree  occasionally  attaining  a  height  of  70  ft.  with  a  diameter 
of  3  feet.  Trunk  usually  short,  dividing  into  stout,  sometimes  drooping  branches  which  form 
a  deep  broad  crown.  Occasionally  an  open  grown  tree  possesses  a  long  clean  trunk. 

BARK — On  branches  and  young  trunks  smooth  and  grayish-brown;  that  of  older  ones  rather 
thick,  distinctly  narrow  ridged,  and  seldom  scaly. 

TWIGS — Stout,  purplish-green  or  green,  sometimes  smooth,  often  covered  with  a  whitish 
bloom  and  scattered  raised  lenticels. 

BITDS — Opposite,  short-stalked,  large,  ovoid;  the  terminal  acute  and  the  lateral  obtuse; 
white-woolly,  covered  by  bud-scales,  the  cuter  pair  usually  completely  enclosing  the  inner 
pair.  Collateral  buds  are  common  and  often  d)stend  outer  scales. 

LEAVES — Opposite,  compound,  with  3-5  leaflets.  Leaflets  ovate,  coarsely  and  irregularly 
serrate,  2-4  inches  long  and  2-3  inches  broad. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  V-sbaped,  bordered  by  light  colored  margin,  encircling  stem  so  that 
adjacent  edges  of  opposite  scars  meet  at  a  very  sharp  angle.  Bundle-scars  usually  3,  seldom 
divided,  ( arranged  in  a  lunate  line. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  April  before  or  with  the  leaves  on  the  past  season's  growth.  Stami- 
nate  and  pistillate  occur  on  different  trees,  tne  former  on  hairy  drooping  pedicels,  the  latter 
in  narrow  drooping  racemes. 

FRUIT — Matures  about  September  but  is  full  grown  earlier.  Wings  of  the  keys  about  li-2 
inches  long,  parallel  or  incurved,  borne  in  drooping  racemes.  Fruit-stalks  persist  far  into 
winter. 

WOOD — Diffuse-perous;  light,  soft,  creamy- while,  close-grained,  not  durable.  Used  in  the 
manufacture  of  woodenware,  cooperage,  wood  pulp,  and  sometimes  in  cheap  furniture.  Weighs 
26.97  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Ash-leaved  Maple,  also  known  as  Box  Elder, 
is  readily  distinguished  in  summer  by  its  opposite,  compound  leaves  with  3  to  5  leaflets  and  its 
green  branchlets  covered  with  a  whitish  bloom.  The  maple  keys  arranged  in  drooping  racemes 
are  also  characteristic.  In  winter  the  green  branchlets  are  distinctive  together  with  the  large, 
ovoid,  often  collateral  and  downy  buds.  The  leaf -scars  encircle  the  stem  and  their  adjacent 
edges  form  a  very  sharp  angle. 

RANGE — Vermont  westward  to  Ontario,    south   to  Florida,    Texas,   and   Mexico. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Rare  end  local.  Most  abundant  in  the  eastern  and 
southern  parts  of  the  State.  Common  along  the  streams  in  the  southwestern  part.  The  prevailing 
tree  along  the  lower  part  of  the  Conococheague  creek  in  Franklin  county. 

HABITAT — Thrives  best  in  moist  soil,  but  also  tolerant  of  drier  situations.  Commonly  found 
along  streams,  border  of  lakes  or  swamps.  Often  planted  for  ornamental  purposes  on  dry 
locations. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— It  is  of  little  commercial  importance  as  a  timber  tree. 
It  yields  a  sap  from  which  some  maple  sugar  in  made  locally.  This  tree  is  very  attractive  as 
an  ornamental  tree  and  is  planted  extensively  as  a  shade,  lawn,  road-side  and  park  tree.  It 
grows  rapidly  and  has  an  attractive  form  in  winter  and  a  dense  green  foliage  la  summer. 


198 


SYCAMORE  MAPLE. 
Acer  Pseudo-platanus,  Linnaeus. 

The  Sycamore  Maple  is  a  European  species.  It  is  native  to  central  Europe  where  it  attains 
a  height  of  120  ft.  and  develops  a  large  spreading  head.  The  trunk  is  sometimes  furrowed 
and  the  bark  flakes  off  in  thin  scales. 

This*  tree  is  considered  the  most  attractive  of  the  Maples  for  ornamental  planting.  It  Is 
rather  intolerant  of  soil  conditions  and  consequently  not  planted  so  extensively  as  the 
Norway  Maple. 

The  Sycamore  Maple  is  readily  distinguished  by  its  firm,  3-5-lobed  leaves  with  sharply 
serrate  margins,  acute-based  sinuses,  and  pubescent  lower  leaf-surfaces.  In  winter  the  large, 
obtuse,  green  buds  are  characteristic  together  with  the  leaf-scars  which  do  not  quite  encircle 
the  stem.  The  lenticels  are  also  more  numerous  and  the  lateral  buds  stand  out  from  the  twig 
more  than  on  the  Norway  Maple.  The  fruit  keys  are  also  smaller  and  the  wings  less  divergent 
than  those  of  the  Norway  Maple. 


NORWAY  MAPLE. 

§ 

Acer  platanoides,  Linnaeus. 

The  Norway  Maple  is  a  European  species  extending  from  Norway  to  Switzerland.  It 
attains  a  height  of  100  ft.  and  develops  a  round  head.  The  trunk  of  the  tree  is  closely 
flseured  but  not  scaly. 

This  tree  is  one  of  our  mcst  attractive  ornamental  trees  and  is  planted  extensively  along 
the  streets  in  cities  and  in  lawns  and  parks.  It  is  especially  adapted  for  city  planting  because 
it  Is  more  tolerant  of  unfavorable  city  conditions  than  our  native  Maples.  It  is  also  rather 
free  from  the  attacks  of  insects  and  fungi,  anil  retains  the  leaves  longer  in  fall  than  our 
native  species.  The  wood  is  of  no  commercial  importance  in  America,  but  is  used  for  minor 
purposes  in  Europe. 

The  Norway  Maple  can  readily  be  distinguished  in  summer  by  its  large  leaves  which 
resemble  those  of  our  Sugar  Maple,  but  are  deeper  in  color  and  firmer  in  texture.  The  large- 
toothed  and  almost  entire-margined  leaves  are  readily  recognized  from  the  smaller  3-5-lobed 
leaves  of  the  Sycamore  Maple  with  sharply  serrate  leaf-margins.  A  certain  test  for  identifying 
the  Norway  Maple  is  the  presence  of  milky  sap  in  the  leaf-petiole  which  readily  exudes  upon 
twisting,  in  winter  the  Norway  Maple  can  be  recognized  by  the  large,  obtuse,  glossy,  red 
buds  which  may  be  more  or  less  olive-green  at  the  base  and  by  the  lateral  closely  appressed 
buds.  The  leaf-scars  which  encircle  the  stem  are  also  characteristic.  The  very  divergent  wings 
of  the  large  maple  keys  and  the  closely  fissured,  but  not  scaly  bark  will  also  aid  In  recog- 
10*  It. 


PLATE  CX.     EUROPEAN  MAPLES. 
SYCAMORE  MAPLE.  NORWAY  MAPLE. 


1.  A  spike  of  flowers,   x  J. 

2.  Branch   with   leaves   and  fruit,    x   J. 

3.  A  key  of  fruit,   x  J. 

4.  A  seed,  natural  size. 

5.  A  seedling,    x  |. 

6.  A  winter  twig,  x  J. 

7.  A   leaf-scar,    enlarged. 


8.  A  cluster  of  flowers,  x  1. 

9.  Branch  with  leaves  and  fruit, 

10.  A  key  of  fruit,  x  1. 

11.  A  seed,    natural  size. 

12.  A  seedling,    x  J. 

13.  A  winter  twig,   x  J. 

14.  A  leaf-scar,    enlarged. 


x  i. 


PLATE  CXI.     HERCULES'  CLUB. 

1.  Section  of  a  branch  with  compound  leaves,  x  i. 

2.  A  panicle  of  Howes,    x  J. 

3.  A   panicle  of  fuit,    x   J. 

4.  A  winter  twig,   x  i. 

5.  Section  of   a  winter   twig,    natural   size. 


199 


HERCULES'  CLUB. 
Aralia  spinosa,  Linnaeus. 

FAMILY  AND  GENUS  DESCRIPTION— This  species  belongs  to  the  Ginseng  family,  Aralia- 
ceae,  which  comprises  about  52  genera  with  4fiO  species  of  herbs,  vines,  shrubs,  or  trees.  The 
members  are  widely  distributed  but  commonest  in  the  tropics.  The  English  Ivy  (Hedera  Helix 
L.)  an  evergreen  climber  is  one  of  its  most  common  representatives.  The  Common  Ginseng 
(Panax  quinquefolium) ,  is  a  well-known  member  of  this  family.  The  flora  of  Pennsylvania 
comprises  2  genera  with  6  species.  The  species  described  here  is  the  only  tree  representative 
in  North  America.  The  genus  Aralia  to  which  it  belongs  comprises  about  30  species,  mostly 
herbs,  native  to  North  America  and  Asia. 

FORM— It  may  attain  a  height  of  40  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  12  inches,  but  usually  10-20  ft. 
in  height  with  a  diameter  of  4-8  inches.  Trunk  may  be  branchless  or  sometimes  covered  with 
stout  widespreadlng  branches. 

BARK — Thin,  brown  outside,  yellow  inside,  at  first  smooth,  later  divided  into  rounded  broken 
ridges. 

TWIGS — Very  stout,  $-§  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  armed  with  stout,  scattered  prickles, 
roughened  by  long  narrow  leaf-scars  which  nearly  encircle  the  twig. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  bud  present,  about  5-1  of  an  inch  long,  chestnut-brown,  conical, 
blunt-pointed.  Lateral  buds  J  of  an  inch  long,  flattened,  often  triangular. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  compound  or  doubly  compound,  often  3  ft.  long  and  2-21  ft.  wide. 
Leaflets  ovate,  2-3  inches  long,  thick,  wedge-shaped  or  rounded  at  base,  sharp-pointed  at 
apex,  serrate  on  margin,  sometimes  a  little  hairy  on  lower  surface.  Enlarged  bases  of  the 
leaf-petioles  sheath  the  twigs. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  narrow,  long,  about  half  encircle  the  twig,  taper  to  a  point, 
embrace  lateral  buds,  stand  in  a  horizontal  position,  i.  e.  their  plane  is  often  at  right  angles 
to  the  main  axis  of  the  twig.  Each  leaf -scar  contains  about  12  bundle-scars  arranged  in  a  curved 
line. 

FLOWERS — Appear  from  June  to  August.  Each  flower  is  usually  perfect  and  cream  white. 
Many  of  them  are  grouped  together  in  panicled-umbels  which  occur  solitary  or  in  groups 
often  3-4  ft.  long. 

FRUIT — An  ovoid  black  berry  about  J  of  an  inch  long,  5-angled,  and  terminated  with 
blackened  persistent  styles. 

WOOD — Soft,    brittle,    weak,    close-grained,    brown   with    yellow    streaks;    sapwood    narrow. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Hercules'  Club,  also  known  as  Angelica  Tree, 
can  be  distinguished  by  its  large  leaves  which  may  be  once,  twice,  or  thrice  compound.  The 
leaves  are  the  largest  of  our  native  trees.  They  may  be  3-4  ft.  long  and  2-21  ft.  wide.  The 
petioles  have  enlarged  clasping  bases.  The  terminal  buds  are  conical  and  1-1  of  an  inch  long 
and  the  lateral  ones  are  triangular  and  1  of  an  inch  long.  The  elongated  narrow  leaf-scars 
half  encircle  the  twigs.  The  stout  twigs  and  the  petioles  are  armed.  The  small  white  flowers 
are  arranged  in  panicled-umbels  often  over  2  ft.  long.  Its  habit  of  growth  is  unique  in  that 
a  number  of  unbranched  but  armed  stems  come  up  in  rather  dense  clumps. 

RANGE — Southern   New   York  to  Florida,    west  to  Missouri  and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  locally  throughout  the  southern  half  of  the 
State.  Not  reported  from  the  northern  or  northeastern  parts.  Local  outposts  of  it  are  reported 
from  the  northwestern  part. 

HABITAT — Prefers   rich   moist  bottomland.     Common   in  moist   and   fertile   woodlands. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  is  of  no  commercial  value.  It  remains 
small,  produces  inferior  wood,  and  is  local  and  limited  in  Its  distribution.  The  tree  grow* 
rapidly  and  is  planted  rather  extensively  for  ornament. 


200 


FETID  BUCKEYE. 
Aesculus  glabra,  Willdenow. 

FAMILY  AND  GENUS  DESCRIPTION— The  Soapberry  family,  Sapindaceae,  comprises  about 
100  genera  with  more  than  1,000  species.  They  are  widely  distributed,  but  commonest  in 
the  tropical  regions  of  the  Old  World.  The  flora  of  North  America  comprises  6  genera  of 
trees  with  about  13  species.  The  genus  Aesculus  alone  has  representatives  in  Pennsylvania. 
It  comprises  14  species,  10  of  which  are  native  to  America  and  2  to  Pennsylvania.  In  addition 
to  the  native  species,  the  Horse-chestnut  fAesculus  Hippocastanum)  is  widely  introduced 
in  this  State. 

FORM — Usually  a  email  tree  not  over  40  ft.  in  height  with  a  diameter  of  12  inches,  but 
may  reach  a  height  of  90  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  24  inches.  Trunk  short  and  slender.  Crown 
broad,  deep,  round-topped. 

BARK — Gray,    thick,    evidently-furrowed,   breaking  up  into  plates. 

TWIGS — Stout,  at  first  downy  and  brown,  later  smooth,  reddish-brown  to  ashy-gray;  ill- 
smelling  if  bruised.  Pith  large,  light  green,  circular  in  outline. 

BUDS — Opposite;  terminal  buds  normally  present  but  occasionally  absent;  about  f  of  an 
inch  long,  sharp-pointed,  resinous,  covered  by.  nearly  triangular  keeled  scales.  Outer  bud- 
scales  reddish-biown,  finely  hairy  on  margin,  covered  with  a  thin  bloom;  inner  bud-scales 
yellowish-green,  enlarging  in  spring  to  1-2  inches  and  persisting  until  leaves  are  half 
developed. 

LEAVES — Opposite,  compound  with  5,  rarely  7,  leaflets.  Leaflets  ovate  to  oval,  3-6  inches 
long,  rather  long-pointed  at  apex,  narrowed  at  base,  irregularly  and  finely  toothed  on  margin; 
when  young  rather  hairy,  later  smooth,  yellowish-green  above,  paler  beneath.  Leaf-stalks 
4-6  inches  long,  stout,  hairy  when  young,  enlarged  at  base.  Foliage  ill-smelling  if  bruised. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  large,  heart-shaped  to  inversely  triangular.  Bundle-scars  large, 
in  more  than  3s,  usually  3-9,  often  arranged  in  3  groups. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April  or  May  after  the  leaves  are  developed.  Small,  yellowish 
or  greenish,  with  four  upright  petals;  borne  in  more  or  less  downy  terminal  panicles  about 
5-6  inches  long  and  2-3  inchec  broad.  Pedicels  4-6-flowered.  Stamens  project  beyond  yellow 
corolla. 

FRUIT — Matures  about  October.  A  thick,  round  or  pear-shaped,  prickly  capsule  about  1 
inch  in  diameter,  borne  on  stout  stalks,  containing  a  single  large,  smooth,  lustrous  somewhat 
flattened  brown  nut.  The  falling  fruit  leaves  a.  large  scar  on  the  twigs. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  very  fine,  indistinct;  pores  very  small,  invisible  to  unaided  eye, 
evenly  distributed,  mostly  solitary;  wood  elements  not  in  tier-like  arrangement.  Wood  is 
weak,  soft,  whitish  or  sometimes  pale  yellow,  lustrous.  Weighs  28.31  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 
Used  for  paper-pulp,  woodenware,  artificial  limbs,  chip  hats. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Fetid  Buckeye,  also  known  as  Ohio  Buckeye, 
Stinking  Buckeye,  and  American  Horse-chestnut,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  leathery,  dehiscent 
fruit  containing  one  to  three  shining  seeds.  The  fruit  of  this  species  is.  covered  with  spines 
while  that  of  the  Sweet  Buckeye  is  smooth.  The  leaves  are  opposite  and  digitately  com- 
pound with  usually  5  or  occasionally  7  leaflets.  The  buds  arc  free  from  a  resinous  coating; 
the  terminal  one  is  often  bu-king.  The  flowers  are  showy,  yellowish  or  greenish  in  color  and 
arranged  in  large  panicles  borne  at  the  ends  of  branches.  The  stamens  project  beyond 
the  corolla  while  those  of  the  Sweet  Buckeye  are  just  as  long  or  shorter  than  the  corolla.  It 
is  native  only  in  the  western  part  of  the  State. 

RANGE — Western    Pennsylvania,    south    to   Alabama,    west    to    Illinois,    Iowa,    and    Oklahoma. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Found  only  in  the  extreme  western  part  of  the 
State.  Reported  from  Allegheny,  Fayette,  Lawrence,  Mercer,  Washington,  Greene,  and  Westmore- 
land counties. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  growing  in  moist  soil.  Prefers  banks  of  streams,  ravines,  or  simi- 
lar situations. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— This  tree  is  of  no  commercial  importance  in  Pennsylvania. 
It  is  very  limited  in  its  distribution  and  usually  remains  small.  It  is  occasionally  planted 
as  an  oanamnntal  tree,  brut  is  less  popular  than  the  Horse- chestnut. 


PLATE  CXII.     FETID  BUCKEYE. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,  x  J. 

2.  A   flower   with   stigma   below   anthers,    natural   size. 
S.  A  flower  with  stigma  above  anthers,    natural  size. 

4.  A  fruiting  branch,  x  }. 

5.  A  fruit  with  part  of  shell  removed  showing  two  seeds,   x  i. 

6.  A  seed,   x  J. 

7.  Longitudinal  section  of  a  seed,   x  i. 

8.  A  winter  twig,   x  J. 

9.  Section    of    a    winter    twig    showing    a    leaf-scar    with    bundle-scars,    natural   size. 


PLATE  CXIII.     SWEET  BUCKEYE. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,  x  J. 

2.  A  flower  with  stigma  below  anthers,   natural  size. 

3.  A  flower  with  stigma  above  anthers,  natural  size. 

4.  A  fruiting  branch,  x  J. 

5.  A  seed,   x  i. 

6.  Longitudinal  section  of  a  seed,  x  J. 

7.  A  winter  twig,   x  5. 

8.  Section  of  a  winter  twig  showing  a  leaf -scar  with  bundle-scars,  slightly  enlarged. 


201 


SWEET  BUCKEYE. 
Aesculus  octandra,  Marshall. 

FORM — The  largest  American  species  of  the  genus.  Usually  a  small  tree  less  than  60  ft. 
in  height  with  a  diameter  of  18  inches,  but  may  reach  a  height  of  110  ft.  with  a  diameter 
of  over  3  feet.  At  its  optimum  in  western  North  Carolina  and  eastern  Tennessee.  Reported  a 
mere  shrub  in  western  Texas. 

BARK — Light  brown  to  grayish-brown,  evidently-fissured,  breaking  up  into  manjp  thin 
irregular  scales.  See  Fig.  58. 

TWIGS — Stout,  at  first  finely  hairy,  becoming  smooth,  reddish-brown  to  ashy-gray,  slightly 
ill-smelling  when  bruised.  Pith  large,  light  green,  circular  in  outline. 

BUDS— Opposite;  terminal  bud  present  and  about  4/5-2  inches  long;  non-resinous,  somewhat 
blunt-pointed,  covered  by  nearly  triangular  or  ovate  keeled  scales.  Outer  bud-scales  reddish- 
brown,  covered  with  a  thin  bluish  bloom;  inner  bud-scales  yellowish-green,  enlarging  in 
spring  to  1-2  inches. 

LEAVES — Opposite,  compound,  with  5,  sometimes  7,  short-stalked  or  stalkless  leaflets. 
Leaflets  oval  to  obovate,  4-10  inches  long,  finely  toothed  on  margin,  long-pointed  at  apex,  narrowed 
at  base,  dark  green  and  smooth  on  upper  surface  when  mature,  yellowish -green  and  somewhat 
hairy  on  under  surface. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  large,  heart-shaped  to  inversely-triangular.  Bundle-scars  large,  in 
more  than  3s,  usually  3-9,  often  arranged  in  3  groups. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April  or  May  when  the  leaves  are  developed.  Small,  yellow  or 
purplish,  with  4  conniving  petals;  borne  in  finely  hairy  terminal  panicles  about  4-12  inches  long. 
Stamens  are  included  in  yellow  corolla. 

FRUIT — Matures    about    October.     A    smooth   obovoid    capsule,    about   1-2   inches   thick.  Seeds 

several,    large,    smooth,    reddish-brown,    lustrous,    2-15   inches   broad,    somewhat   flattened.  Valves 

of  capsule  thin,   pale  brown,   not  spiny  or  warty.     The  fruit  is  poisonous  to  stock,    but  seldom 
proves   fatal. 

WOOD — Similar  to  that  of  the  Fetid  Buckeye,  page  200,  but  it  is  somewhat  lighter  In 
weight  and  has  the  wood  elements  in  a  tier-like  arrangement.  Used  for  lumber,  veneer, 
slack  cooperage,  paper-pulp,  candy  boxes,  dishes,  bowls,  and  artificial  limbs. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Sweet  Buckeye,  also  known  as  Yellow  Buck- 
eye and  Big  Buckeye,  is  native  only  to  the  extreme  western  part  of  the  State.  The  leaves  are 
opposite,  digitately  compound  with  usually  5  or  sometimes  7  leaflets.  The  flowers  are  showy, 
yellowish  in  color,  and  arranged  in  large  panicles  borne  at  the  ends  of  branches.  The 
stamens  are  .usually  included  in  the  corolla  while  those  of  the  Fetid  Buckeye  project  beyond 
It.  The  valves  of  the  fruit-capsule  are  smooth.  The  twigs  are  stout,  contain  a  large  pith 
and  are  roughened  by  large  ccnspicuous  bundle-scars.  The  buds  are  large  and  non-resinous. 
The  twigs  when  bruised  are  less  ill-smelling  than  those  of  the  Fetid  Buckeye.  It  is  the 
largest  American  species  of  the  genus. 

RANGE— Western  Pennsylvania  to  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Oklahoma,  south  to  Georgia  and 
Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Occurs  only  in  the  extreme  western  part  of  the  State. 
Found  in  Allegheny,  Greene,  and  Fayette  counties.  Very  abundant  along  Dunkard  Creek,  in  the 
southern  part  of  Greene  county. 

HABITAT— Usually  grows  in  mixture  with  hardwoods  in  rich  soil.  Prefers  rich  bottom- 
lands and  valleys.  Common  along  or  near  streams. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  tree  is  of  no  commercial  importance  in  Pennsylvania. 
It  is  very  limited  in  its  distribution  in  the  State.  The  wood  which  it  produces  and  the 
small  size  which  it  attains  in  the  northern  part  of  its  range  do  not  Justify  its  planting  for 
forestry  purposes.  It  is,  however,  the  largest  American  representative  of  the  genus.  It 
grows  rapidly  and  may  be  planted  for  ornamental  purpose*, 


202 

BASSWOOD. 

Tilia  americana,  Linnaeus. 

FAMILY  AND  GENUS  DESCRIPTION— The  Linden  family,  Tillaceae,  comprises  about 
35  genera  with  probably  375  species  found  in  temperate  and  tropical  regions.  The  members 
consist  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  a  few  herbs.  One  genus,  Tills,  alone  has  tree  representatives 
in  North  America.  This  genus  comprises  about  20  species,  R  of  which  are  native  to  North 
America  and  8  to  Pennsylvania.  Two  species  are  described  here.  The  third  species,  known  as 
Michaux's  Basswood  (Tilia  Michauxii  Nutt.)  is  very  rare  In  this  State.  Its  leaves  which  are 
densely  pubescent  and  grayish-green  beneath  and  its  floral  bracts  usually  rounded  at  the 
base  are  distinctive.  The  bark  of  the  branches  is  usually  smoother  and  lighter  than  that 
of  the  2  other  native  species. 

FORM — A  large  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  60-70  ft.  but  may  reach  a  height  of 
120  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4J  feet.  Trunk  straight,  clean,  with  little  taper.  Crown  dense, 
broad,  rather  deep,  ovoid  or  rounded. 

BARK — On  old  trunks  firm  but  easily  out,  thick,  longitudinally-furrowed  into  flat  scaly 
ridges.  Ridges  often  divided  by  transverse  recendary  furrows.  On  young  stems  dark  gray 
and  smooth.  See  Fig.  79. 

TWIGS — Smooth  or  very  finely  hairy,  shining,  bright  red;  second  year  olive,  olive-red,  or 
covered  with  a  gray  skin;  usually  zigzag,  tough,  mucilaginous  if  chewed,  covered  with 
scattered,  dark,  oblong  lenticels.  In  cross-section,  characteristic  blunt  conical  masses  with 
intervening  lighter  colored  areas  are  present. 

BUDS — Alternate;  terminal  bud  absent;  ovoid,  2-ranked,  stout,  often  somewhat  flattened, 
divergent,  usually  deep  red,  occasionally  greenish,  mucilaginous,  smooth  or  sometimes  slightly 
hairy  towards  apex.  Bud-scales  glabrous,  thick,  rounded  at  back,  usually  3  visible;  one 
large  scale  makes  bud  unsymmetrlcal. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  ovate  to  orbicular,  4-7  Inches  long,  firm  in  texture,  long- 
pointed  at  apex,  deeply  toothed  on  margin  with  sharp  teeth,  unequally  heart-shaped  to 
truncate  at  base,  dark  green  and  shining  on  upper  surface,  green  and  smooth  on  lower  except 
for  a  few  rusty  hairs.  Leaf-stalks  slender,  J  length  of  blade.  The  side  of  the  leaf  nearest 
the  branch  Is  the  largest. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  large,  conspicuous,  raised,  2-ranked,  containing  few  to  many 
bundle-scars  arranged  in  a  ring  or  a  single  curved  line,  or  scattered.  Stipule-scars  distinct, 
one  narrow,  the  other  broad;  often  show  bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  June.  Perfect,  regular,  sweet,  fragrant,  yellowish-white,  5-20  in 
drooping  cymose  clusters.  The  long  peduncle  which  bears  the  flowers  is  united  for  about 
half  its  length  with  a  conspicuous  green  bract. 

FRUIT — A  woody,  spherical,  nut-like  drupe  about  the  size  of  a  pea.  Occurs  singly  or  in 
small  clusters  with  a  common  stalk  attached  to  a  leafy  bract  and  often  persisting  far  into 
winter. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  distinct,  but  colorless;  light,  soft,  compact,  moderately  strong, 
light  brown  to  nearly  white,  fine  In  texture;  little  difference  between  spring  wood  and  summer 
wood.  Weighs  28.20  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper-pulp,  wooden- 
ware,  cheap  furniture,  panels  for  carriages,  kegs,  pails,  barrel  headings,  berry  boxes. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Basswood,  also  known  as  Linden,  Lime-tree, 
Whitewood,  Beetree,  Whistle-wood,  and  Lynn,  may  be  distinguished  by  Its  large,  firm  un- 
equally based  leaves  with  green  and  smooth  lower  surfaces,  by  its  smooth  bright  red  twigs, 
by  its  alternate,  deep  red,  unsymmetrical  buds  with  2-3  visible  scales,  by  its  white  flowers 
arranged  In  drooping  clusters  attached  to  a  green  bract,  and  by  its  woody  spherical  nut-like 
drupe  about  the  size  of  a  pea  attached  to  winged  bracts.  The  dark  funnel-shappd  areas  in  the 
inner  bark  alternating  with  lighter  areas  as  seen  in  a  cross-section  of  a  twig  are  characteristic. 
The  smooth  dark  gray  bark  of  younger  stems  and  the  thick  longitudinally-furrowed  bark  on 
older  trunks  are  distinguishing  features. 

RANGE — New  Brunswick  to  Manitoba,  southward  to  Georgia  and  eastern  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Common  in  the  eastern  and  southeastern  parts  of 
the  State.  Rare  in  the  mountainous  parts  except  in  rich  valleys.  Locally  abundant  in  the 
western  and  southern  parts. 

HABITAT — Rarely  grows  in  pure  stands,  but  usually  mixed  with  other  hardwoods.  Prefers 
rich  soils  in  bottomlands.  It  can  endure  considerable  shade.  It  suffers  little  from  windfall 
but  occasionally  from  windbreak  upon  exposed  situations. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  tree  is  one  of  our  important  timber  trees  on  ac- 
count of  the  valuable  wood  and  the  bark  which  it  produces.  Seeds  or  seedlings  may  be 
planted.  If  seedlings  are  used,  they  should  be  planted  early  In  spring  before  growth  starts. 
The  tree  sprouts  from  stump  very  freely  (Fig.  79).  It  grows  rapidly,  produces  beautiful 
Hweet  smelling  flowers,  and  is  rarely  attacked  by  fungi.  It  Is  one  of  our  most  attractive 
ornamental  trees. 


PLATE  CXIV.     BASSWOOD. 


1.  A  flowering  branch  with  mature  leaves,   x  1. 

2.  Longitudinal  section  of  a  flower,   slightly  en- 

larged. 
8.  A  fruiting  branch,  z  J. 


4.  A  winter  twig,    x  1. 

5.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,    enlarged. 

6.  A  leaf-scar  with   bundle-scars,    enlarged. 


PLATE  CXV.     WHITE  BASSWOOD. 

1.  A  flowering  branch  with  mature  leaves,   x  J. 

2.  Longitudinal    section    of    a    flower,    slightly    enlarged. 

3.  A  fruiting  branch,   x  J. 

4.  A  winter  twig,   x  J. 

5.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,    enlarged. 


203 


WHITE  BASSWOOD. 
Tilia  heterophylla,  Ventenat. 

FORM— Usually  50-60  ft.  high  but  may  reach  a  height  of  90  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  4J  feet. 
It  becomes  as  thick  but  not  so  high  as  the  Basswood.  Trunk  straight,  clean,  slightly  tapering. 
Crown  dense,  broad,  rather  rounded. 

BARK — Similar  to  that  of  the  Basswood,  page  202. 
TWIGS— Similar  to  those  of  the  Basswood,   page  202. 
BUDS — Similar  to  those  of  the  Basswood,   page  202. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  variable  in  outline,  oblong-ovate  to  orbicular-ovate,  5-8  inches 
long,  firm  in  texture,  short  taper-pointed  at  apex,  deeply  toothed  on  margin  with  sharp 
teeth,  unequally  heart-shapod  to  truncate  at  base;  upper  surface  dark  green  and  smooth, 
lower  surface  silvery-white  and  finely  hairy.  Leaf-stalk  slender,  J  length  of  blade.  The  side 
of  the  leaf  nearest  the  branch  is  the  largest. 

LEAF- SCARS— Similar  to  those  of  the  Basswood,   page  202. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  June  or  July.  Perfect,  regular,  sweet,  fragrant,  yellowish-white, 
5-15  in  drooping  cymose  clusters.  The  long  peduncle  which  bears  the  flowers  is  united  for 
about  half  its  length  with  a  conspicuous  green  bract. 

FRUIT — A  woody,  spherical,  nut-like  drupe  about  the  size^of  a  pea.  Occurs  singly  or  in  small 
clusters  with  a  common  stalk  attached  to  a  leafy  bract  and  often  persists  far  into  winter. 

WOOD — Similar  to  that  of  the  Basswood,   page  202,   only  about  2  pounds  lighter. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  White  Basswood,  also  known  as  White  Linden, 
has  the  general  characteristics  of  the  Basswood,  page  202.  It  can  be  distinguished  from 
the  latter  by  its  leaves  which  are  slightly  larger,  silvery-white  and  finely  hairy  on  the  lower 
surface,  while  those  of  the  Basswood  are  green  and  smooth.  The  Basswood  also  reaches  a 
somewhat  larger  size  and  has  a  wider  distribution  in  this  State  than  the  White  Basswood. 

RANGE — New  York   to   Florida,    westward   to   Illinois,    Tennessee,    and   Alabama. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Localljr  in  the  northeastern,  eastern,  and  southern 
parts.  Sparse  in  the  mountainous  parts.  Not  known  to  occur  in  the  western  part. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  in  rich  woods  in  mountainous  regions.  Tolerates  dense  shade, 
but  thrives  in  full  light.  Occurs  in  mixture  with  other  hardwoods.  Common  on  limestone  soil. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  tree  is  of  little  commercial  importance  in  this  State 
on  account  of  its  limited  distribution.  Farther  south  it  is  more  abundant,  being  the  prevail- 
ing Basswood  of  West  Virginia.  It  is  one  of  our  most  attractive  ornamental  trees. 


204 


FLOWERING  DOGWOOD. 

Cornus  florida,  Linnaeus. 

FAMILY  AND  GENUS  DESCRIPTION— The  Dogwood  family,  Cornaceae,  comprises  about 
15  genera  found  mostly  in  temperate  regions.  Only  2  genera  are  native  to  North  America, 
both  of  which  have  representatives  in  this  State.  They  are  the  Dogwoods,  Cornus,  and  the 
Gums,  Nyssa.  The  genus  Cornus  is  widely  distributed  in  temperate  regions  and  comprises 
about  40  species  of  which  number  15  are  native  to  North  America  and  8  to  Pennsylvania.  A 
few  species  reach  tree-size  and  yield  a  very  hard  and  valuable  wood. 

FORM — A  small  tree  usually  from  15-25  ft.  high  but  may  reach  a  height  of  40  feet  with 
a  diameter  of  18  inches.  Trunk  with  little  tapor  up  to  the  first  branches  and  then  practically 
disappears  entirely  in  the  branches.  Crown  low,  broad,  high,  and  rather  dense. 

BARE — On  younger  stems  and  branches  light  brown  to  reddish-gray  and  rather  smooth.  On 
older  stems  reddish-brown  to  black,  broken  up  into  quadrangular  scaly  blocks.  Bark  rather 
bitter  and  ill-smelling.  See  Fig.  103. 

TWIGS — Usually  red,  sometimes  tinged  with  green,  smooth,  glossy,  often  covered  with  a 
glaucous  bloom;  lenticels  few  and  small;  pith  white  and  gritty. 

BUDS — Opposite;  terminal  bud  present.  Flower-buds  terminal,  spherical,  1/5-2/5  of  an  inch 
broad,  covered  by  two  opposite  pairs  of  bud-scalds.  Lateral  buds  small  often  covered  by  persist- 
ent bases  of  leaf-stalks.  Terminal  leaf-buds  reddish,  slightly  downy,  covered  by  2  gaping 
bud-scales. 

LEAVES — Opposite,  simple,  clustered  towards  end  of  branches,  ovate,  3-5  inches  long,  2-3 
inches  wide,  acute  at  apex,  wedge-shaped  at  base,  entire  to  wavy  on  margin,  bright  dark 
green  above,  pale  below.  Midrib  and  primary  veins  prominent. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  may  or  may  not  encircle  stem;  bundle-scars  3  and  occasionally 
more.  Evidently-raised  on  the  base  of  leaf-stalks  on  season's  growth,  and  forming  a  deep  V- 
shaped  notch  between  them. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April.  Perfect,  greenish,  arranged  in  dense  heads,  and  surrounded 
by  a  large  white  involucre  which  is  often  mistaken  for  the  corolla. 

FRUIT — Ripens  about  October.  A  scarlet  ovoid  drupe  about  3/5  of  an  inch  long,  containing 
a  grooved  stone,  borne  solitary  or  in  clusters  of  2-5  on  a  stalk.  Undeveloped  pistillate  flowers 
often  persist  about  base  of  fruit. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  medullary  rays  distinct;  light  red  or  pink  in  color.  Wood  very 
heavy,  hard,  strong,  tough,  pale  reddish-brown  to  pinkish,  with  lighter  colored  sapwood. 
Weighs  50.81  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  shuttles,  golf  stick  heads,  brush  blocks,  wedges, 
engraver's  blocks,  tool  handles,  and  many  kinds  of  turnery. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Flowering  Dogwood,  also  known  as  Boxwood,  Dog- 
wood and  Flowering  Cornel,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  opposite  branching,  bright  red  or  occa- 
sionally greenish  twigs,  small  lateral  buds  covered  by  the  persistent  bases  of  the  leaf-stalks,  large 
spherical  flower-buds,  terminal  leaf-buds  with  a  single  pair  of  bud-scales,  and  by  its  alligator 
bark.  In  autumn  the  fruit,  and  in  spring  the  flowers,  also  aid  in  distinguishing  it. 

RANGE — Massachusetts  west  through  Ontario  to  Michigan  and  Missouri  and  south  to  Florida 
and  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Locally  throughout  the  State;  most  common  in  the 
eastern  and  southern  parts. 

HABITAT — Prefers  well  drained  soil  but  will  grow  on  most  of  our  soils.  Generally  prevalent 
but  most  common  and  thrives  best  in  low,  moist,  and  rather  fertile  situations.  Usually  found 
in  the  understory  of  the  forest. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Flowering  Dogwood  is  valuable  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses and  for  its  wood.  Few  trees  surpass  it  in  beauty  when  in  bloom  and  when  fruiting.  In 
this  State  it  does  not  reach  a  suflicient  size  to  be  of  commercial  importance.  It  should  be 
maintained  in  our  forest  on  account  of  its  beauty  and  its  value  as  a  soil  improver,  since  It 
is  very  tolerant  and  will  grow  readily  in  the  understory  of  the  forest. 


PLATE  CXVI.     FLOWERING  DOGWOOD. 

1.  A  flowering  branch,  with  three  clusters  of  flowers,   each  surrounded  by  a  showy  4-bracted  white 

involucre,   x  J. 

2.  A  single  flower,  enlarged. 

3.  A  fruiting   branch   with   mature  leaves,    x   J. 

4.  A  winter  twig  with  two  terminal  spherical  flower  buds,   x  i. 

5.  Terminal  section  of  a  winter  twig  showing  leaf-scars  and  leaf-buds,    enlarged. 


PLATE  CXVII.     ALTERNATE-LEAVED  DOGWOOD, 

1.  A  flowering  branch,  x  J. 

2.  A   fruiting   branch,    x    J. 

3.  A  winter  twig,   natural  size. 

4.  Terminal    section    of    a    winter    twig,     enlarged. 


205 


ALTERNATE-LEAVED  DOGWOOD. 

Cornus  alternifolia,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — A  small  tree  usually  about  10-20  ft.  high  but  may  reach  a  height  of  30  ft.  with 
a  diameter  of  8  inches.  Trunk  is  short.  Crown  broad,  deep,  flat-topped,  and  dense. 

BARK — Rather  thin;  on  younger  stems  greenish  streaked  with  white,  and  smooth;  on  older 
stems  reddish-brown  and  roughened  by  shallow  longitudinal  fissures  which  are  sometimes  joined 
transversely. 

TWIGS — Alternate,  rather  slender  and  flexible,  smooth,  often  glossy,  at  first  reddish- 
green,  later  dark  green  and  often  striped  with  white;  bitter  to  the  taste  and  emitting  an  offen- 
sive smell  if  punctured;  marked  with  lunate  leaf -scars  and  scattered  lenticels. 

BUDS — Alternate,  rarely  opposite,  oval,  sharp-pointed,  covered  with  a  few,  usually  2-3,  chest- 
nut-brown scales.  Outer  scales  are  often  separated  towards  apex. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  sometimes  opposite,  simple,  frequently  clustered  at  end  of  branches,  3-5 
inches  long,  2-3  inches  wide,  ovate,  acuminate  at  apex,  wedge-shaped  at  base,  entire  or  wavy 
on  margin,  bright  green  above,  usually  almost  white  downy  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  sometimes  opposite,  situate  on  extensions  of  the  twigs,  with 
their  surfaces  often  at  right  angles  to  twigs;  iu  outline  resemble  the  moon  in  first  quarter 
and  containing  3  bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  April.  Cream-colored,  perfect,  borne  in  many-flowered  terminal 
cymes. 

FRUIT — A  dark  blue  spherical  drupe,  J  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  tipped  with  remnants  of  the 
style,  borne  in  cymes.  Ripens  in  October. 

WOOD — About  the  same  as  the  flowering  dogwood,   but  no  uses  of  it  are  reported. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Alternate-leaved  Dogwood,  also  known  as  Blue 
Dogwood,  Purple  Dogwood,  Green  Osier,  and  Pigeon-berry,  may  be  distinguished  by  Its  alternate 
branching,  reddish-green  to  dark  green  twigs,  cream-colored  flowers  and  dark  blue  fruit  arranged 
in  cymes.  It  does  not  have  the  alligator  bark  of  the  Flowering  Dogwood  and  usually  frequents 
moister  habitats. 

RANGE — Nova  Scotia  to  Alabama,    and  westward  to  Minnesota. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Throughout  the  State.  Common  in  the  portions  which  are 
well  watered. 

HABITAT — Prefers  moist  welt  drained  soil.  Most  common  along  streams  and  other  bodies  of 
water  and  border  of  woodlands.  Very  toler.aut  of  shade. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  StECIES— The  Alternate-leaved  Dogwood  is  of  little  commercial 
importance.  It  is  very  pretty  and  may  be  of  value  as  a  soil-conserver  and  improver. 


206 


BLACK  GUM. 
Nyssa  sylvatica,  Marshall. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION— The  genus  Nyssa  is  rather  limited  in  its  distribution  being  confined 
to  the  eastern  United  States  and  southern  Asia.  It  comprises  7  species  in  the  world  5  of  which 
are  native  to  North  America  and  1  to  Pennsylvania.  All  the  representatives  produce  wood  which 
is  very  tough  on  account  of  its  twisted  and  contorted  grain. 

FORM — Usually  a  medium-sized  tree  with  a  Leight  of  15-40  ft.,  but  may  reach  a  height 
of  100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  5  feet.  Trunk  straight  and  rather  continuous.  Many  lateral 
branches  are  horizontal:  some  of  the  lower  are  drooping  and  the  upper  ascending.  Old  trees 
often  have  a  low  Hat  crown  but  have  their  middle  and  lower  trunk  covered  with  small 
horizontal  branches. 

BARK — Grayish,  smooth  to  scaly  on  young  trunks;  reddish-brown  to  grayish-black,  very 
rough  and  scaly  on  older  trunks.  Forms  what  is  known  as  alligator  bark  on  very  old  trunks 
characterized  by  quadrangular  and  hexagonal  blocks.  See  Fig.  100. 

TWIGS — Smooth,  with  few  lenticels,  grayish  to  reddish-brown;  pith  rather  large,  white, 
separated  by  layers  of  stone  cells  which  may  be  seen  with  magnifying  glass. 

BUDS — Alternate,  ovate,  reddish-brown,  1  of  an  inch  long,  usually  smooth,  covered  by  3-5 
visible,  ovate,  closely  overlapping  scales.  Lateral  buds  sometimes  superposed,  smaller  than 
terminal  one.  Buds  originate  close  to  leaf-scar  and  occasionally  protrude  into  it. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  oval,  2-5  inches  long,  acute  at  apex,  wedge-shaped  at  base, 
entire  and  slightly  thickened  on  margin,  dark  green  and  shiny  above,  often  hairy  below, 
turning  to  a  gorgeous  red  in  fall. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  conspicuous,  rather  large,  broadly  crescent-shaped,  with  three 
single  or  3  groups  of  bundle-scars,  which  are  conspicuous  on  account  of  size;  brownish  in 
color,  contrasting  with  lighter  surface  of  the  leaf-scar. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  May  or  June.  Borne  on  long  slender  somewhat  downy  stalks.  Sta- 
minate  and  pistillate  flowers  separate.  Staminate  occur  in  dense  many-flowered  heads; 
pistillate  in  open  few-flowered  clusters. 

FRUIT — A  small,  dark  blue,  fleshy  berry  or  drupe,  ovoid,  |  of  an  inch  long,  1-3  in  a 
cluster,  often  with  a  few  remnants  of  undeveloped  pistillate  flowers  at  base.  Borne  on 
long  stalks.  Ripens  in  Octobei. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  rays  indistinct;  growth-rings  usually  indistinct;  pores  numerous, 
small,  uniform  in  si/e  and  distribution;  wood  cross-grained,  tough  to  split,  difficult  to  work, 
not  hard,  moderately  strong  and  stiff,  not  durable,  light  yellow.  Weighs  36.91  Ibs.  per  cubic 
foot.  Used  for  hubs  of  wheels,  boxes,  ironing  boards,  rolling  pins,  chopping  bowls,  excelsior, 
broom  handles,  baskets,  and  berry  crates. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Black  Gum,  also  known  as  Sour  Gum,  Tupelo, 
and  Pepperidg*?,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  alligator  bark  when  old,  grayish  to  reddish-brown 
smooth  clear  twigs  when  young  which  are  marked  with  conspicuous  leaf-scars  with  three 
bundle-scars.  The  buds  diverge  very  much  from  the  twigs  and  may  be  superposed.  Lateral 
branches  on  young  trees  often  take  a  horizontal  position.  The  separation  of  the  pith  by  stone 
cells,  the  gorgeous  red  color  of  the  autumnal  foliage,  and  the  bluish  berries  also  aid  in 
recognizing  it. 

RANGE — Maine  to  Tampa  Bay,  Florida;  west  to  southern  Ontario  and  Michigan,  southward 
to  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Very  common  in  the  eastern,  central,  and  southern 
parts,  local  in  western  part,  rarer  in  northern  part.  Reaches  large  size  in  swamps  of  Adams 
and  Franklin  counties. 

HABITAT — Found  in  variable  habitats.  Very  common  on  burnt-over  areas,  on  dry  mountain 
slopes,  abandoned  fields,  abandoned  charcoal  hearths;  but  reaches  its  best  development  along 
streams  and  in  low  wet  situations.  While  it  has  preferences  it  is  not  a  chooser  of  habitats. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Black  Gum  has  been  despised  since  the  early  farmers 
tried  to  split  it  for  fence  rails.  It  is  slowly  gaining  favor,  but  is  not  of  suflJcient  importance 
to  be  recommended  for  forest  planting.  Its  autumnal  foliage  is  beautiful  and  in  winter  the 
form  of  young  trees  is  very  attractive. 


PLATE  CXVIII.     BLACK  GUM. 

1.  A  pistillate  flowering  branch,  x  |. 

2.  A  staminate   flowering  branch,    x  a. 

3.  A    fruiting    branch    with    mature    leaves,     x    a 

4.  A  winter   twig,    natural   size. 

5.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,    enlarged. 


PLATE  CXIX.  MOUNTAIN  LAUREL. 

1.  Flowering  branch   with    (i)    immature   leaves,     (m)    mature   leaves,    and   with    open    and    closed 

blossoms,   x  5. 

2.  Branch  with  mature  leaves   and  mature  fruit,    x  J. 

3.  A  fruit,  enlarged. 


20T 

MOUNTAIN  LAUREL. 

Kalmia  latifolia,  Linnaeus. 

FAMILY  AND  GENUS  DESCRIPTION— The  Heath  family,  Ericaceae,  embraces  species  which 
are  amongst  our  best  known  and  most  popular  shrubs.  The  Buckle-berries,  Blueberries,  Cran- 
berries, Azaleas,  Kalmlas,  and  Rhododendrons  are  some  of  the  commonest  representatives. 
Very  few  representatives  are  of  any  special  economic  value  on  account  of  the  wood  which 
they  produce.  Some  are  Important  on  account  of  their  aesthetic  value,  while  others  yield 
valuable  food  or  are  used  In  medicine.  This  family  comprises  about  90  genera  with  more 
than  1,400  species,  of  which  number  about  40  genera  are  found  in  the  United  States,  7  of  which 
have  tree  representatives.  The  flora  of  Pennsylvania  comprises  27  genera  with  about  45  species. 
Since  most  of  them  are  shrubs  only  8  species  representing  3  genera  are  described  here.  The 
genera  here  described  are  Kalmia,  Rhododendron,  and  Oxydendrum. 

The  genus  Kalmia  comprises  5  or  6  species  in  North  America  and  Cuba.  The  species 
described  on  this  page  is  the  only  4>ne  which  reaches  tree-size.  Two  other  shrub  species,  Sheep 
Laurel  (Kalmia  angustifolia  L.)  'and  Swamp  Laurel  (Kalmia  polifolia  Wang.),  are  also 
native  to  this  State.  The  genus  is  named  after  Peter  Kalm,  a  Swedish  naturalist,  who 
traveled  in  North  America  during  the  middle  of  the  18th  century. 

FORM — In  Pennsylvania  usually  a  shrub  5-10  ft.  in  height  with  a  stout  stem  which  is 
usually  forked,  often  inclined  and  bearing  divergent  branches  which  form  a  round  compact 
head.  In  the  South  it  reaches  a  height  of  30-40  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  20  inches. 

BARK — Very  thin,  reddish-brown,  furrowed,  peels  off  into  long,  narrow,  thin  scales  ex- 
posing cinnamon-red  inner  bark. 

TWIGS — At  first  reddish-green  covered  with  viscid  hairs,  later  becoming  decidedly  green,  and 
finally  brown.  Rather  smooth  except  where  roughened  by  leaf-scars  and  bud-scale  scars. 

BUDS — Alternate,  ovate,  sharp-pointed,  greenish  in  color.  Leaf-buds  are  formed  early  and 
appear  below  the  clustered  flower-buds.  Flower-buds  are  covered  by  numerous,  downy  and  over- 
lapping green  scales  which  arc  coated  with  glandular  hairs  and  enlarge  with  the  developing 
shoot  in  spring. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  sometimes  paired,  simple,  oblong,  wedge-shaped  at  base,  entire- 
margined,  acute  at  apex  sometimes  tipped  with  bristle  point,  3-4  inches  long,  about  i  of  an  inch 
wide.  Mature  leaves  are  thick,  leathery,  dark  green,  glossy  above,  yellowish-green  below, 
and  persist  for  two  seasons. 

LEAF-SCARS — Large,    imbedded    in   twig,    with   a   cluster   of   bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Emerge  from  flower  buds  which  begin  to  expand  hi  early  spring  and  open  about 
May  or  June.  Flowers  are  borne  on  red  or  groen  scurfy  stalks  and  arranged  in  dense  many- 
flowered  corymbs  which  have  a  diameter  of  about  4  inches.  Calyx  is  divided  into  five  parts. 
Corolla  is  white  to  rose-colored  and  viscid  pubescent. 

FRUIT — Matures  about  September.  It  is  a  many -seeded  woody  capsule,  roundish  in  outline 
but  slightly  five-lobed  and  covered  with  viscid  hairs.  Both  style  and  calyx  persist.  Each 
capsule  produces  many  seeds. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  heavy,  hard,  strong,  rather  brittle.  Heartwood  reddish-brown, 
sapwood  lighter  colored.  Weighs  44.62  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Where  it  grows  to  a  fair  size 
it  is  an  excellent  wood  for  fuel.  It  is  also  used  in  manufacture  of  tool  handles,  penholders, 
bucket  handles,  turnery,  and  tobacco  pipes.  About  85,000  Ibs.  of  this  wood  are  produced 
annually  in  North  Carolina  for  pipes. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Mountain  Laurel,  also  known  as  Kalmia  and 
Calico-Bush,  is  one  of  our  few  broad-leaved  species  whose  leaves  persist  over  winter.  It  can 
be  distinguished  from  all  other  species  native  to  this  State  by  its  thick  leathery  leaves  which 
are  3-4  inches  long,  persistent,  decidedly  glossy  on  upper  surface  and  yellowish-green  on 
lower  surface.  The  Great  Laurel  or  Rhododendron  is  also  evergreen  but  its  leaves  and  buds  are 
much  larger  than  those  of  the  Mountain  Laurel.  The  leaves  of  the  Mountain  Laurel  are 
shorter,  narrower,  and  sharper-pointed  than  tnose  of  the  Rhododendron. 

RANGE — New   Brunswick   south  generally   along   the  mountains   to   Florida,    west  to  Arkansas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Throughout  the  State.  Most  common  In  the  moun- 
tainous parts,  where  it  often  forms  almost  impenetrable  thickets.  Very  rare  and  local,  or  absent, 
in  the  extreme  western  part. 

HABITAT — Common  along  margins  of  swamps  and  as  an  understory  in  deciduous  forests. 
Also  found  on  hillsides  and  hilltops.  Very  common  on  rocky  and  round  hilltops. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Mountain  Laurel  remains  too  small  in  this  State 
to  be  of  commercial  importance  on  account  of  the  wood  which  It  produces.  Next  to  Rhodo- 
dendron, it  is  the  most  attractive  native  shrub  found  in  our  flora.  It  is  a  favorite  with  lovers 
of  the  woods  who  admire  not  only  Its  blossoms,  brt  also  its  leaves  and  its  habit  of  growth. 


208 


GREAT  LAUREL. 
Rhododendron  maximum,  Linnaeus. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — The  name  Rhododendron  is  of  Greek  origin  and  means  Rose  tree. 
It  comprises  about  100  species  of  shrubs  and  a  few  small  trees  in  the  northern  hemisphere. 
About  10  species  are  native  to  North  America  and  1  to  Pennsylvania. 

FORM — A  shrub  or  small  bushy  tree.  In  this  State  Dually  a  shrub  from  5-12  ft.  in 
height,  but  in  the  mountains  ot  the  South  it  may  reach  j,"  height  of  35  feet.  Stems  often 
twisted,  bearing  contorted  branches  which  form  an  irregular  round  head. 

BARK — Thin,    reddish-brown,    at   first    close,    later   peeling   oft   into   thin    scales. 

TWIGS — At  first  green  and  coated  with  rusty  pubescence  but  become  smooth  during  first 
winter,  and  gradually  turn  to  bright  red-brown. 

BUDS — Alternate;  leaf-buds  and  flower-buds  distinct.  Leaf -buds  usually  axillary  sometimes 
terminal,  dark  green,  cone-shaped,  form  in  midsummer.  Flower-buds  usually  terminal,  cone- 
shape,  1-15  inches  long,  covered  by  numerous,  overlapping,  green  bracts. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  persistent,  clustered  at  apex  of  branches,  ovate  to  oblong, 
acute  at  apex,  rounded  to  wedge-shaped  at  base,  entire  on  margin,  4-11  inches  long,  1J-2J  inches 
wide,  thick,  leathery,  smooth  and  dark  green  en  upper  surface,  whitish  on  lower  surface. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  slightly  raised,  conspicuous,  rounded  at  base,  slightly  depressed 
at  top,  with  several  bundle-scars  arranged  in  a  U-shaped  line. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  June  after  the  new  leaves  are  fully  developed,  are  arranged  in 
umbel-like  clusters  about  4-5  inches  in  diameter  and  borne  on  glandular  pedicels.  Individual 
flowers  are  perfect,  pale  rose  to  white  in  color;  upper  petals  marked  by  yellowish -green 
dots. 

FRUIT — A  dark  reddish-brown  capsule  about  J  of  an  inch  long,  which  persists  until  the 
following  season.  Capsules  split  open  lengthwise  liberating  oblong  flattened  seeds.  Surrounded 
at  the  base  by  persistent  calyx  and  terminated  by  persistent  linear  style. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  hard,  strong,  brittle,  light  brown  with  lighter  sapwood.  Weighs 
39.28  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Of  little  commercial  use  but  occasionally  manufactured  into  tool 
handles  and  engraving  blocks.  Excellent  for  fuel  where  it  reaches  a  fair  size. 

V 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Great  Laurel,  also  known  as  Rhododendron 
and  Rose  Bay,  can  be  distinguished  from  all  other  species  of  trees  native  to  Pennsylvania  by  its 
large,  persistent,  leathery,  simple  leaves  which  are  clustered  .towards  the  end  of  the  branches 
and  alternate  in  their  arrangement.  Its  shrubby  form  and  its  preference  for  moist  habitats 
also  aid  in  distinguishing  it.  The  conical  flower-buds,  which  are  usually  terminal  and  often 
over  an  inch  long,  are  also  characteristic.  The  twigs  are  evidently  marked  by  the  bud-scale 
scars. 

RANGE — Nova  Scotia  anc.  Lake  Erie  on  the  north,  south  along  the  mountains  to  northern 
Georgia. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  throughout  the  State.  Rare  in  the  southeastern 
and  western  parts.  Abundant  throughout  the  mountainous  parts. 

HABITAT — In  the  North  frequents  a  cold  swampy  situation.  In  the  South  it  ascends  the 
mountains  to  3,000  feet  but  remains  along  tfie  banks  of  streams.  Tolerates  most  soils  except 
limestone. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Rhododendron  does  not  reach  a  large  enough  size 
in  Pennsylvania  to  produce  wood  of  commercial  importance.  In  the  South  it  often  becomes  a 
tree.  It  is  the  most  attractive  shrub  in  our  flora,  and  will  thrive  in  a  variety  of  situations 
but  prefers  moist  locations  and  flees  from  soils  which  contain  lime. 


PLATE  CXX.     GREAT  LAUREL. 

1.  Branch   with   mature  and   immature   leaves,    and   a   cluster  of   open   flowers,    x   2. 

2.  A  fruiting  branch  with  a  large  terminal  bud,   x  J. 

3.  Cross-section  of  a  fruit  capsule  showing  five  cells,    natural  size. 


PLATE  CXXI.     SOUR-WOOD. 

1.  A  flowering  branch  with  long  one-sided   racemes  of  flowers   clustered  in  an   open  panicle,    x 

2.  A  few  racemes  of  fruit,   x  J. 

3.  Cross-section  of  a  capsule  showing  five  cells  filled  with  seeds,    slightly   enlarged. 

4.  A  winter  twig,   enlarged. 

5.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,   enlarged. 


209 


SOUR-WOOD. 

Oxydendrum  arboreum,  (Linnaeus)  De  Candolle. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION — The  Sour-wood  is  the  sole  representative  of  the  genus  Oxydendrum. 
The  word  Oxydendrum  means  acid  tree,  in  allusion  to  the  acid  foliage. 

FORM — A  medium-sized  tree  which  may  reach  a  height  of  50-60  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  20  Inches, 
but  usually  is  about  '25  ft.  in  height  with  a  diameter  of  8  inches.  Trunk  usually  straight,  tall, 
slender,  and  bears  a  narrow  round-topped  crown. 

BARK — Rather  thick,  roughened  by  fissures  which  separate  rounded  ridges  covered  with 
thick  scales.  On  old  trunks  grayish  often  tinged  with  red;  on  young  branches  reddish-brown. 

TWIGS — Rather  slender,  at  first  yellowish-green,  later  orange-colored  and  reddish-brown. 
Marked  with  numerous,  oblong,  elevated  lenticels. 

BUDS — Alternate,  axillary;  terminal  buds  absent;  small,  partly  imbedded  in  the  bark,  acute 
at  apex,  covered  with  several  opposite  dark  red  scales. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  oblong,  stalked,  acute-  at  apex,  wedge-shaped  at  base,  serrate 
on  margin,  very  smooth,  5-7  inches  long,  li-2i  inches  wide. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,    elevated,    nearly   triangular,    with   a   single    compounded   bundle-scar. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  July.  White,  perfect,  with  cylindrical  corolla,  and  borne  in 
racemes  often  6-8  inches  long. 

FRUIT — A  5-sided,  K-valved  capsule  terminated  by  a  persistent  style.  Matures  in  September 
only  a  month  or  six  weeks  after  the  flowers.  Capsules  often  persist  in  clusters. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  hard,  heavy,  compact,  reddish-brown  with  lighter  sapwood.  Medullary 
rays  are  numerous  but  narrow.  Weighs  46.48  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  locally  for  runners 
of  the  Appalachian  tanbark  sleds,  and  for  tool  handles. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Sour-wood,  also  known  as  Sorrel-tree  and  Sour 
Gum,  can  be  distinguished  in  summer  by  its  white  bell-shaped  flowers  which  are  arranged 
In  racemes  resembling  the  lily-of-the-valley.  The  alternate  bitter  leaves  which  resemble  the 
peach  leaf  are  also  characteristic.  The  bark  on  older  trees  resembles  that  of  the  Black  Gum. 
The  winter  buds,  which  art  dark  red,  alternate,  very  small,  often  partly  inbedded  by  bark,  are 
also  characteristic. 

RANGE — Pennsylvania    and    Indiana    south    to    Florida    and    western    Louisiana. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  only  sparsely  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
State. 

HABITAT — Usually  frequents  well-drained  soils.  Commonly  found  on  hillsides,  seldom  along 
streams. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Sour- wood  is  native  only  .to  a  very  small  portion 
of  southern  Pennsylvania.  Its  small  size  and  limited  distribution  in  this  State  prevent  it  from 
being  recommended  for  fores- tr$  purposes.  It  is,  however,  an  attractive  ornamental  tree  on 
account  of  its  form,  late  flowering,  beautiful  and  attractive  autumnal  foliage. 


14 


210 

COMMON  PERSIMMON. 
Diospyros  virginiana,  Linnaeus. 

FAMILY  AND  GENUS  DESCRIPTION— The  Ebony  family,  Ebenaceae,  is  widely  distributed 
iu  the  tropics,  and  only  a  few  representatives  are  found  in  the  temperate  regions.  It  comprises 
about  6  genera  with  more  than  250  species.  The  most  important  genus  is  Diospyros  which  has  2 
representatives  in  the  flora  of  the  United  States  and  1  in  Pennsylvania.  This  genus  comprises 
about  160  species  found  mostly  in  the  tropics.  Members  of  this  genus  produce  some  of  the  ebony 
of  commerce,  and  valuable  foods  in  China  and  Japan.  The  species  described  below  is  the  sole 
representative  of  this  genus  in  eastern  North  America.  One  other  species  is  found  in  the 
southern  and  western  parts  of  Texas. 

FORM — A  small  tree  usually  from  25  to  50  ft.  in  height  with  a  diameter  of  less  than  12 
inches,  but  may  reach  a  height  of  100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2  feet.  Trunk  usually  short  and 
Blender.  Crown  high  and  broad-topped.  It  often  spreads  by  roots  migrating  under  the  ground, 
forming  dense  thickets. 

BARE — On  old  trunks  thick,  hard,  dark  gray  to  dark  brown  or  black,  cinnamon-red  at  the 
bottom  of  the  fissures;  separates  into  thick  squarish  blocks  which  peel  off  into  thin  scales. 
See  Fig.  101. 

TWIGS — Slender,  bittar,  astringent,  grayish  to  reddish-brown  becoming  darker  in  second 
year,  usually  pale  pubescent,  covered  with  a  few  scattered  orange-colored  lenticels,  and  contain 
large  pith  or  pith  chamber. 

BUDS — Alternate,  broadly  ovate,  closely  pressed  against  twig,  I  of  an  Inch  long,  sharp- 
pointed,  covered  by  2  dark  brown  glossy  scales;  terminal  bud  absent. 

LEAVES — Alternate,  simple,  oval,  acute  at  apex,  entire  on  margin,  wedge-shaped  to  heart- 
shaped  at  base,  4-6  inches  long,  thick,  dark  green  and  shiny  above,  often  hairy  below.  Leaf- 
stalks are  i-1  inch  long,  and  contain  1  fibro-vascular  bundle. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  elevated,  flattened,  contain  1  prominent  bundle-scar  which  Is  trans- 
versely-elongated, or  several  becoming  confluent. 

FLOWERS — White,  appearing  about  May  or  June.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  occur 
separate.  Staminate  arranged  in  2-3-flowered  cymes.  Pistillate  solitary,  and  borne  on  short 
stalks. 

FRUIT — A  juicy,  spherical,  orange-colored,  often  red-cheeked  berry  with  remnants  of  style 
persisting  and  seated  in  enlarged  green  calyx.  Often  very  astringent.  Sometimes  edible  be- 
fore frost  appears.  Contains  from  1-8  seeds,  usually  4-6. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous:  heavy,  hard,  compact,  susceptible  to  a  high  polish,  strong;  heart- 
wood  is  brown  to  black  but  usually  forms  late;  sapwood  is  wide,  yellowish  and  often  streaked 
with  black.  Weighs  about  49  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  shuttles,  gold  heads,  billiard  cuea, 
mallets,  parquet  flooring,  brush  backs,  veneer. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Persimmon,  also  known  as  Date-plum  and  Pos- 
sum-wood, can  be  distinguished  in  summer  by  its  alternate,  simple,  entire-margined,  deep  green 
leaves  with  only  1  fibro-vascular  bundle  in  the  leaf-stalk  and  the  rough  bark  which  is  often 
broken  up  into  quadrangular  blocks  and  is  evidently  cinnamon-red  at  the  base  of  the  fissures. 
In  autumn  the  fruit  is  characteristic.  In  winter  the  rough  bark  with  cinnamon-red  color  at  the 
bottom  of  the  fissure,  the  semi-orbicular  leaf-scars  with  only  1  bundle-scar,  the  broadly  ovate 
buds  with  2  dark  brown  scales,  the  reddish-brown  slightly  pubescent  twigs  with  relatively  large 
pith  or  pith  cavity,  and  the  persistent  remnants  of  flowers  are  distinctive. 

RANGE — Connecticut    to    Florida,    westward    to    Iowa    and    Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Common  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the 
State.  Abundant  on  Gettysburg  battlefield.  Local  in  southwestern  part  of  the  State.  Absent 
in  the  higher  mountainous  parts. 

HABITAT — Prefers  a  light,  somewhat  sandy  well-drained  soil.  Tolerates  rich  bottomlands 
especially  in  the  South. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Persimmon  is  too  small  in  size  and  too  limited  in  dis- 
tribution in  this  State  to  be  of  commercial  importance  from  the  point  of  view  of  wood  produc- 
tion. It  is  essentially  a  southern  tree.  The  tree  has  an  attractive  form,  beautiful  clean  foliage, 
and  an  exceptionally  attractive  bark.  It  rarely  exceeds  40  feet  in  height  with  a  diameter  of  12 
Inches  in  this  State. 


PLATE   CXXII.     COMMON   PERSIMMON. 

1.  A  branch  with   pistillate  flowers,    x   J. 

2.  A  branch  with  staminate  flowers,   x  |. 

3.  A    fruiting    branch    with    mature    leaves,     x    4 

4.  A  winter  twig,    natural  size. 

5.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,   enlarged. 


PLATE  CXXIII.     CATALPA. 

1.  A  panicle  of  flowers,   x  J. 

2.  A  branch  with  two  drooping  cigar-like  fruits,  the  one  split  open  showing  the  seeds,  x 

3.  A  winged  seed,   x  i. 

4.  A  winter  twig,  x  J.     See  Plate  II. 


211 


CATALPA. 
Catalpa  bignonioides,  Walter. 

FAMILY  AND  GENUS  DESCRIPTION — This  tree  belongs  to  the  Bigmmia  family,  Bignoni- 
aceae,  which  comprises  about  100  genera  with  1,500  species.  Most  of  the  representatives  of  this 
family  occur  in  the  tropics;  only  a  few  are  found  in  the  temperate  zone.  They  occur  as  trees, 
shrubs,  woody  climbers,  or  rarely  herbs.  North  America  has  only  6  genera  with  8  species  in  its 
flora  and  Pennsylvania  3  genera  with  3  species.  The  genus  Catalpa  is  the  only  one  which  has 
tree  representatives  occuring  rather  frequently  in  this  State.  This  genus  comprises  about  7 
species  in  the  world,  of  which  number  2  are  native  to  North  America.  No  representative  of  this 
genus  is  native  to  Pennsylvania  but  1  species  has  been  naturalized  so  extensively  in  every  part 
of  the  State,  that  a  description  of  it  in  this  publication  was  considered  desirable. 

FORM — Usually  25-40  ft.  high  but  may  reach  a  height  of  60  ft.,  with  a  .diameter  of  3  feet. 
Trunk  usually  short,  crooked,  often  angular,  and  unattractive.  Crown  high,  broad,  and  rather 
symmetrical  in  appearance  in  summer,  due  to  the  dense  foliage. 

BARK — Light    brown,     rather    thin,     shallowly-ridged,     scaly,     bitter. 

TWIGS — Stout,  smooth,  or  slightly  downy,  yellowish-brown,  usually  frozen  back,  covered  with 
numerous  large  lenticels,  roughened  by  leaf-scars.  Pith  large,  white  sometimes  chambered  at 
the  nodes.  See  Plate  II,  2. 

BUDS — Terminal  bud  usually  absent.  Lateral  buds  small,  almost  inbedded  in  bark,  usually  less 
than  i  of  an  inch  long,  covered  with  5-6  visible,  small,  brown  bud-scales. 

LEAVES — Opposite  or  whorled  i.  e.,  more  than  two  at  a  node,  simple,  6-10  inches  long,  4-5 
inches  broad,  ovate,  heart-shaped  at  base,  acute  at  apex,  entire  or  wavy  on  margin.  Fall 
simultaneously  after  first  heavy  frost. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite  or  3  at  a  node,  large,  conspicuous,  with  projecting  margin,  elliptical 
in  outline,  with  conspicuous  bundle-scars  usually  arranged  in  an  ellipse. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  June  or  July.  Perfect,  arranged  in  many-flowered  crowded  panicles 
from  8-10  inches  long.  Corolla  is  conspicuously  spotted  on  inner  surface. 

FRUIT — A  long,  cylindrical,  bean-like  capsule  which  often  persists  far  into  winter  and  con- 
tains many  flattened  winged  seeds.  Wings  surround  seeds  and  are  fringed  at  ends.  Tree  is 
sometimes  called  Indian  Bean  on  account  of  fruit. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  distinct  demarcation  between  heartwood  and  sapwood;  odor  somewhat 
like  kerosene;  light,  soft,  coarse-grained;  durable  in  contact  with  soil,  light  brown,  and  has 
a  satiny  surface.  Weighs  about  26  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  mainly  for  cross-ties,  posts  and 
poles. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Eastern  Catalpa,  also  known  as  Catalpa,  Indian 
Bean,  and  Cigar  Tree,  can  be  distinguished  in  summer  by  its  leaves  which  are  opposite  or 
whorled  and  its  large  panicles  of  flowers.  The  cigar-like  or  bean-like  fruit  is  characteristic  in 
autumn  and  winter.  In  winter  it  can  be  distinguished  by  its  large  elliptical  leaf-scars  which 
are  opposite  or  whorled  and  have  their  bundle-scars  arranged  in  an  ellipse.  The  pith  is  sometimes 
chambered  at  the  nodes.  The  Eastern  Catalpa  closely  resembles  the  Western  Catalpa  but  has 
slenderer  and  thinner  walled  fruit,  larger  flower-clusters,  more  distinct  markings  on  inner  surface 
of  corolla,  and  more  blunt-pointed  leaves.  The  Western  Catalpa  is  more  frost  hardy  than  the 
Eastern  Catalpa. 

RANGE — Original  range  was  limited  to  parts  of  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi  and  Florida. 
At  present  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  as  far  North 
as  New  England. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Planted  for  ornamental  purposes  in  many  parts  of  the 
State  and  has  escaped  cultivation  in  practically  every  part  of  the  State.  Individual  specimens 
or  small  groups  of  trees  are  common  in  the  forest  near  settlements. 

HABITAT Prefers    moist    and    fertile    situations,    is    most    common    along    streams    and    river 

banks,    but  also  found  in  drier  places.     Prefers  shaded   to  open   situations. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — Two  species  of  Catalpa  are  commonly  recognized,  the 
Eastern  Cataipa  and  the  Western  or  Hardy  Catalpa.  Both  have  been  widely  advertised.  The 
Western  species  is  hardier  against  frost  and  produces  a  straighter  and  cleaner  trunk.  Neither 
of  the  2  species  should  be  planted  for  forestry  purposes  in  this  State.  Both  species  produce  beauti- 
ful flowers  and  foliage  and  attractive  fruit. 


212 

THE  OLIVE  FAMILY— OLEACEAE. 

The  Olive  family  comprises  representatives  which  are  widely  dis- 
tributed in  temperate  and  tropical  regions,  but  are  commonest  in 
the  northern  portion  of  both  hemispheres.  A  great  variety  of  trees 
and  shrubs  is  embraced  by  this  family,  some  of  which  are  valuable 
timber  trees,  while  others  are  valuable  for  ornamental  purposes  or 
for  the  food  which  they  yield.  The  most  important  is  the  Olive 
Tree  (Olea  Europaea,  L.),  whose  fruit  and  the  oil  derived  from  it 
are  used  almost  universally  as  food.  The  Olive  Tree  was  cultivated 
in  ancient  times  in  Syria  and  Palestine ;  later  it  was  introduced  into 
the  Mediterranean  region,  where  one  can  find  large  orchards  of  it  at 
the  present  time;  and  within  the  past  few  decades  it  has  been  intro- 
duced on  a  large  scale  into  the  southwestern  part  of  the  United 
States.  A  few  specimens  are  also  growing  at  the  present  time  near 
Mont  Alto,  Pennsylvania.  The  Ashes  which  are  among  our  most 
valuable  timber  trees,  the  Forsythias  and  Lilacs  which  are  among  our 
most  attractive  and  popular  shrubs,  and  the  Privets,  which  are  used 
so  extensively  as  hedge  plants,  are  also  members  of  this  family. 

The  Olive  family  comprises  about  21  genera  with  500  species  of 
trees,  shrubs,  and  a  few  herbs.  The  flora  of  North  America  contains 
5  genera  with  about  20  species,  while  that  of  Pennsylvania  contains 
4  genera  with  9  species.  Only  2  of  the  4  genera  native  to  Pennsyl- 
vania have  tree  representatives. 

KEY  TO  THE  GENERA. 

Page. 
1,  Leaves  compound;  fruit  a  dry  samara;  flowers  without  a  corolla;  winter  buds  with 

3-4  pairs  of  scales,  Fraxinus  213 

1.  Leaves  simple;  fruit  a  fleshy  berry;  flowers  with  a  corolla;  winter  buds  with  more  than 

4  pairs  of  scales,   Chionanthus         217 

THE  ASHES— FRAXINUS,    (Tourn.)  L. 

The  Ashes  with  one  or  two  exceptions  are  trees,  which  occupy  a 
variety  of  situations  but  prefer  rich,  moist  soil.  Some  species  may 
also  be  found  occasionally  in  swamps  or  along  streams,  while  others 
frequent  dry  and  poor  uplands.  The  trees  are  usually  straight,  have 
little  stem  taper,  and  often  attain  large  dimensions.  They  are,  lo- 
cally, rather  abundant  and  yield  wood  which  is  straight-grained, 
strong,  and  elastic.  The  wood  of  all  the  eastern  species  except  that 
of  the  Black  Ash,  is  sold  as  White  Ash.  This  classification  is  legi- 
timate since  there  is  little  difference  for  practical  purposes.  They 
are  also  valuable  as  shade  trees.  Our  native  species  and  the  intro- 
duced European  species  (Fraxinus  excelsior,  L.)  are  planted  rather 
extensively  in  parks  and  lawns.  The  trunk  and  leaves  of  Fraxinus 
ornus,  L.,  a  species  of  southern  Europe  and  Asia  Minor,  yield  the 
manna  of  commerce. 

The  Ashes  may  be  regenerated  by  natural  and  artificial  methods. 
The  natural  regeneration  may  be  accomplished  by  means  of  regulated 


213 

cutting  of  the  mature  trees  accompanied  by  the  establishment  of  a 
young  growth  from  the  seed  scattered  by  the  seed  trees  which  remain, 
or  by  means  of  coppicing.  Coppicing  is  a  practical  method  of  regen- 
eration especially  on  rich,  moist  soils  and  where  very  large  sizes 
are  not  required.  The  artificial  regeneration  may  be  accomplished 
by  sowing  seeds,  or  what  is  still  better,  by  collecting  the  seeds, 
planting  them  in  the  nursery,  and  after  a  year's  growth  in  the  nur- 
sery, lifting  them  and  planting  them  out  upon  the  area  where  they 
are  to  remain  and  produce  a  timber  crop. 

The  leaves  of  the  Ashes  are  opposite  and  compound.  The  leaf- 
lets occur  in  2s  opposite  each  other  along  the  principal  leaf-stalk 
with  a  single  leaflet  at  the  end,  hence  the  total  number  of  leaflets  is 
always  odd.  The  twigs  are  stout  and  occur  in  pairs  opposite  each 
other  along  the  main  axis.  The  branchlets  are  usually  flattened  at 
the  nodes.  The  flowers  are  produced  in  dense  clusters  and  usually 
appear  in  spring  before  the  leaves  have  made  their  appearance.  The 
fruit,  known  as  a  samara,  matures  in  fall  and  occurs  in  clusters. 
The  individual  seed  is  winged  at  one  end.  This  wing  aids  in  the  dis- 
persal of  the  seed  by  the  wind,  which  is  the  most  important  disper- 
sing agent ;  but  water  may  also  scatter  a  large  quantity  of  the  seeds, 
especially  of  such  species  which  are  commonest  near  streams  or 
where  flood  waters  occur. 

The  Ashes  are  distributed  throughout  the  north  temperate  zone 
and  comprise  about  40  known  species,  of  which  number  16  occur  in 
North  America  and  4  in  Pennsylvania.  Three  species  are  common 
in  this  State,  while  another  species  known  as  the  Biltmore  Ash 
(Fraxinus  Biltmoreana,  Beadle),  is  found  locally  only  over  a  limited 
region  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State.  A  variety  of  the  Ked  Ash 
known  as  the  Green  Ash  (Fraxinus  pennsylvanica  var.  lanceolata) 
is  also  found  locally  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State. 

SUMMER  KEY  TO  THE   SPECIES. 

Page. 
1.    Leaves  with  sessile  leaflets;  seed  surrounded  by  wing;  bark  scaly,   not  furrowed  with 

diamond-shaped    fissures,     F.     nigra        215 

1.  Leaves   with    stalked   leaflets:    seed    partly    surrounded    by    wing;    bark    furrowed    with 

diamond-shaped     fissures, 2 

2.  Leaves    and    twigs   smooth   or   nearly   so;    seed    usually   winged    only    at   apex 

F,    americana         214 
2.    Leaves    and    twigs    velvety    pubescent;     seed    winged    usually    at    apex    and    sides, 

F.  pennsylvanica        216 

WINTER  KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES. 

1.    Buds    usually    black    and    acute    at    apex;    bark    scaly,    not    furrowed    with    diamond- 
shaped    fissures;    tall    and    slender,     F.    nigra         215 

1.  Buds    rusty    to    dark    brown,    usually    obtuse    at    apex;    bark    furrowed    with    diamond- 

shaped   fissures;    tall   but   stout, 2 

2.  Twigs    smooth    or    nearly    so;    leaf -scars    evidently    indented    on    upper    margin,     .... 

F.    amfericana         214 
2.    Twigs    velvety    pubescent;    leaf -scars   not    evidently    indented    on    upper   surface,    .... 

F.    pennsylvanica         2U 


214 

WHITE  ASH. 

Fraxinus  americana,  Linnaeus. 

FORM— Usually  reaches  a  height  of  70-80  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2-3  ft.,  but  may  attain  a 
height  of  120  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  5-6  ft.  Trunk  usually  tall,  massive,  clear  from  branches 
for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  ground  when  grown  in  the  forest,  bearing  a  narrow,  some- 
what pyramidal  crown.  When  open  grown  the  crown  is  decidedly  round-topped  and  often  extends 
almost  to  the  ground.  In  forest  grown  trees  trunk  often  continuous  and  dividing  Into  a 
number  of  spreading  branches. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  rather  thick  upon  older  trunks,  decidedly  divided  by  diamond-shaped 
fissures  into  rather  flattened  ridges  which  are  covered  by  thin,  close-fitting  scales.  Longitudinal 
ridges  often  transversely-fissured  so  that  the  primary  fissures  are  connected.  See  Fig.  86. 

TWIGS — Opposite,  stout,  usually  smooth,  sometimes  covered  with  a  slight  bloom,  decidedly 
flattened  at  the  nodes.  During  the  first  winter  grayish-brown  in  color,  and  decidedly  lustrous; 
covered  by  scattered,  large,  pale  lenticels. 

BUDS — Opposite;  ovate,  blunt-pointed,  usually  dark  brown,  occasionally  almost  black.  Term- 
inal bud  larger  than  laterals,  covered  by  2-3  pairs  of  visible  scales  which  occur  opposite  each 
other.  Scales  on  the  terminal  buds  may  be  somewhat  sharp-pointed,  while  those  on  the  lateral 
buds  are  usually  obtuse.  Two  lateral  buds  are  usually  found  at  base  of  terminal  bud  causing*  a 
terminal  enlargement  of  twig. 

LEAVES — Opposite,  compound,  about  10  inches  long  with  5-9  leaflets.  Leaflets  3-5  inches 
long,  about  Ij  inches  broad,  evidently-stalked,  slightly  serrate  on  margin,  acute  at  apex, 
wedge-shaped  to  rounded  at  base.  When  full  grown  usually  smooth  and  dark  green  above  and 
pale  below.  A  few  hairs  are  sometimes  found  along  the  veins  on  the  lower  surface. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  semi-circular  In  outline,  notched  on  the  upper  margin,  raised,  con- 
spicuous; bundle-scars  small,  numerous,  arranged  In  a  curved  line. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  before  the  leaves.  The  staminate  and  pistillate  on  different 
trees.  Staminate  occur  in  dense  reddish-purple  clusters:  pistillate  in  rather  open  panicles. 

FRUIT — A  samara  borne  in  dense  drooping  panicles  about  7  Inches  long.  Panicles  often  persist 
far  into  winter.  Individual  samara  1-2  inches  long,  consists  of  a  seed  bearing  portion  and  a 
winged  portion.  Seed  portion  round  in  cross-section,  terminated  by  the  wing  which  aids  in  the 
dispersal  of  the  seed.  Since  some  trees  bear  staminate  flowers  only,  seeds  are  never  found  upon 
them.  Trees  bearing  pistillate  flowers  alone  produce  seeds. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  very  heavy  and  strong,  odorless  and  tasteless,  tough,  elastic,  and  brown, 
with  thick  and  much  lighter  colored  sapwood.  Pores  in  spring  wood  large,  usually  3-10  rows 
wide.  Pores  in  summer  wood  isolated  or  in  groups  of  2-3,  and  usually  Joined  by  wood  paren- 
chyma. Weighs  40.77  Ibs.  per'  cubic  foot.  Used  in  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements, 
wagon  building,  furniture,  interior  finishing  of  houses,  and  for  tool  handles. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  White  Ash,  also  known  as  the  Canadian  Ash, 
can  be  distinguished  from  the  Black  Ash  by  its  leaves,  which  have  stalked  leaflets,  while  the 
leaflets  of  the  Black  Ash  arc  sessile.  The  buds  of  the  White  Ash  are  usually  obtuse  and  brown 
in  color,  while  those  of  the  Black  Ash  are  usually  acute  and  black  in  color.  The  bark  of  the 
White  Ash  is  usually  furrowed  and  has  diamond-shaped  fissures  between  the  ridges,  while  the 
bark  of  the  Black  Ash  is  scaly,  often  corky  and  not  furrowed.  It  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
Red  Ash  by  its  smooth  leaves  and  twigs.  Those  of  the  Red  Ash  are  usually  velvety-pubescent. 
The  leaf -scars  of  the  White  Ash  are  usually  evidently -indented  in  the  upper  margin,  while 
those  of  the  Red  Ash  are  not.  The  seeds  of  the  White  Ash  have  wings  which  are  fastened  only 
to  the  apex  of  the  seed,  while  in  the  Red  Ash  they  are  fastened  to  the  apex  and  often  extend 
down  along  the  sides,  and  in  the  Black  Ash  the  wing  usually  surrounds  the  seed. 

RANGE — Nova   Scotia   to   Minnesota   and   southward   to   Florida  and   Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Generally  distributed  throughout  the  State.  Common 
in  the  eastern,  southern,  and  western  parts.  Sparse  in  the  mountainous  parts,  except  in  moist 
valleys  and  rich  bottomlands. 

HABITAT — Prefers  fertile,  moist  soils;  very  common  in  rich,  moist  woods  and  along  streams, 
lakes,  and  other  bodies  of  water.  Occasionally  found  on  rather  dry  hillsides. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  White  Ash  is  one  of  the  most  important  timber  trees 
of  Pennsylvania  on  account  of  the  large  size  which  it  attains,  its  general  distribution  through- 
out the  State,  its  rapid  growth,  as  well  as  its  immunity  from  the  attack  of  fungous  diseases 
and  Insects.  Nature  did  not  produce  it  in  pure  stands,  hence  in  developing  our  future  forests  we 
should  aim  to  follow  nature  and  plant  White  Ash  in  mixture  with  some  other  desirable  species. 
White  Ash  and  White  Pine  will  undoubtedly  prove  to  be  a  valuable  mixture. 


PLATE  CXXIV.    WHITE   ASH. 


1.  A  branch  with  a   cluster  of  staminate  flowers 

2.  A  panicle  of  pistillate  flowers,   x  5. 

3.  A  mature  compound   leaf,    x  |. 

4.  A  cluster  of  fruit,   x  J. 

5.  A  winter  twig,   x  1. 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  twi*.  enlarged. 


and   immature  leaves,    x   J. 


PLATE  CXXV.     BLACK  ASH. 

1.  Branch    with   staminate    Sowers,    x    1. 

2.  A  panicle  of  pistillate  flowers,  x  J. 

3.  A   mature  compound   leaf,    x   j. 

4.  A   cluster  of  fruit,   x  J. 

5.  A  winter  twig,   x  J. 

6.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,   enlarged. 


215 


BLACK  ASH. 

Fraxinus  nigra,  Marshall. 

FORM — A  medium-sized  tree  which  usually  attains  a  height  of  GO-80  ft.  with  a  diameter  of 
1-2  ft.,  but  may  reach  a  height  of  100  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  2J  feet.  It  usually  has  a  rather 
tall,  slender  trunk  often  free  from  branches  for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  ground  bearing 
a  narrow  and  shallow  crown  formed  by  numerous  rather  upright  branches.  Usually  found  in  the 
forest,  where  the  slender  form  prevails,  but  occasionally  may  be  found  in  the  open,  where  its 
form  resembles  that  of  the  White  Ash. 

BARK — Thin,  grayish,  shallowly  and  irregularly  fissured;  ridges  between  the  fissures  decidedly 
scaly  and  somewhat  corky.  By  rubbing  the  bark  it  breaks  up  into  a  very  fine  powder.  See 
Fig.  87. 

TWIGS — Rather  stout,  at  first  somewhat  hairy,  but  soon  becoming  quite  smooth.  Resemble 
those  of  the  White  Ash  but  lighter  in  color,  and  not  so  smooth  and  glossy. 

BUDS — Opposite;  terminal  bud  present,  ovate,  sharp-pointed,  black,  covered  with  1-2  pairs  of 
visible  bud-scales,  usually  at  some  distance  from  nearest  lateral  buds;  lateral  buds  usually 
almost  as  broad  as  long,  often  obtuse  at  apex,  closely  oppressed  to  twigs. 

LEAVES— Opposite,  compound,  about  14  inches  long,  with  7-11  sessile  leaflets.  Leaflets  are 
all  sessile  except  the  terminal  one,  3-5  inches  long,  about  15  inches  wide,  acute  at  the  apex, 
serrate  en  the  margin,  wedge-shaped  at  the  base,  dark  green  and  smooth  above,  paler  below. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  large,  conspicuous,  crescent-shaped,  upper  margin  usually  straight 
or  convex;  bundle-scars  numerous  arranged  in  a  curved  line,  sometimes  joined  so  as  to  form  a 
compound  scar. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  before  the  leaves.  Staminate  and  pistillate  borne  on  the  same 
or  different  trees;  the  staminate  in  dense,  dark  purplish  clusters;  the  pistillate  in  rather  open 
panicles. 

FRUIT — A  samara  which  resembles  the  fruit  of  the  White  and  Red  Ashes,  but  differs  in  that 
the  wing  is  broader,  decidedly  notched  at  the  apex,  and  completely  surrounds  the  somewhat 
flattened  seed  bearing  portion. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  heavy,  smooth,  soft,  not  strong,  rather  coarse  grained,  somewhat  dur- 
able. Heartwood  dark  brown  with  white  sapwood;  marked  difference  between  spring  and  sum- 
mer wood;  annual  layers  of  the  wood  easily  separated.  Pores  in  spring  wood  in  a  broad  zone 
often  comprising  one-half  of  the  ring.  Pores  in  summer  wood  large,  few,  scattered.  Weighs 
39.37  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  in  the  manufacture  of  baskets,  hoops,  chair  bottoms,  and  the 
interior  finishing  of  houses. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Black  Ash,  also  known  as  Hoop,  Swamp,  Basket, 
and  Brown  Ash,  can  readily  be  distinguished  from  all  the  other  species  of  Ash  in  Pennsylvania 
in  summer  by  its  opposite  and  compound  leaves  with  sessile  leaflets.  The  leaflets  of  all  other 
species  of  Ashes  are  evidently-stalked.  In  winter  it  can  be  recognized  by  its  black  and  acute 
buds,  its  scaly,  non-fissured  bark,  and  its  tall  and  slender  form.  In  autumn  by  its  fruit  with  a 
flattish  body  which  passes  insensibly  into  the  wing. 

RANGE — Newfoundland    to   Manitoba,    south    to    Virginia    and    Arkansas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Generally  distributed  over  the  State.  Common  in  the 
eastern,  southern,  and  central  parts.  Local  in  the  western  part.  Rare  in  mountainous  portion 
except  in  moist  valleys. 

HABITAT — Prefers  swampy  habitats,  in  this  respect  differing  very  much  from  the  other 
species  of  Ash  native  to  the  State.  Flourishes  best  in  the  cooler  portions  of  its  range.  Seldom 
thrives  on  dry  ground. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — This  species  has  probably  never  been  grown  for  forestry 
purposes.  It  may  be  so  recommended  where  natural  reproduction  may  be  depended  upon  and  in 
such  locations  where  other  more  valuable  trees  will  not  grow.  Few  better  species  grow  in  its 
chosen  home  and  consequently  it  may  be  one  which  we  will  plant  in  the  future  in  extremely 
wet  locations  together  with  others  such  as  Spruce,  Fir,  and  Larch. 


216 


RED  ASH. 

Fraxinus  pennsylvanica,  Marshall. 

FORM — Tree  of  middle  or  large  size,  usually  attaining  a  height  of  30-60  ft.  with  a  diameter 
of  1-8  ft.,  but  may  reach  a  height  of  70  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  5  feet.  Trunk  similar  to  that 
of  White  Ash,  but  smaller  and  bearing  numerous  upright  branches  which  form  a  rather  irregular 
and  compact  crown. 

BARK — Grayish-browu,  roughened  by  numerous  fissures  separating  prominent  ridges  which  In 
time  become  scaly.  Fissures  usually  diamond-shaped.  Ridges  often  sub-divided  by  transverse 
secondary  fissures. 

TWIGS— Similar  to  those  of  the  White  Ash  but  not  so  stout  and  covered  with  a  dense  velvety 
pubescence,  or  sometimes  almost  smooth.  See  "Twigs"  under  White  Ash,  page  214. 

BUDS — Opposite;  terminal  bud  present;  ovate,  brown,  covered  by  brownish  scales,  2  pairs 
of  which  are  usually  visible.  Scales  of  the  lateral  buds  usually  have  an  obtuse  apex  while  those 
of  the  terminal  buds  have  a  more  acute  apex.  See  "Buds"  under  White  Ash,  page  214. 

LEAVES — Opposite,  compound,  about  11  inches  long,  with  5-9  stalked  leaflets.  Leaflets  from 
3-5  inches  long,  1-15  inches  wide,  ovate,  acute  at  apex,  slightly  toothed  on  margin,  wedge- 
shaped  at  base.  At  first  coated  on  the  lower  surface  with  white  tomentum,  later  becoming 
yellowish-green  above,  and  decidedly  velvety-pubescent  beneath. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite;  semi-circular  in  outline,  conspicuous,  slightly  notched  on  the  upper 
margin;  bundle-scars  numerous,  usually  small,  and  arranged  in  a  curved  line.  Sometimes  a 
number  of  bundle-scars  unite  to  form  a  compound  bundle-scar. 

FLOWERS — Appear  about  May  before  or  with  the  leaves.  Staminate  and  pistillate  are 
usually  borne  on  different  trees.  Staminate  occur  in  dense  purplish-red  clusters;  pistillate  in 
open  greenish-red  panicles. 

FRUIT — A  samara,  borne  in  open  panicles  which  often  persist  far  into  winter.  The  individual 
samara  varies  in  length  from  1-2  inches,  and  consists  of  a  seed  bearing  portion  and  a  winged 
portion.  Fruit  resembles  that  of  the  White  Ash,  but  has  the  winged  portion  attached  not  only 
to  the  apex  of  the  seed  but  also  along  the  sides,  while  the  White  Ash  has  the  wing  attached 
at  the  apex  only. 

WOOD — Ring-porous;  heavy,  hard,  rather  strong,  light  brown,  with  rather  wide  and  light 
colored  sapwood.  Pores  in  the  spring  and  summer  wood  are  similar  to  those  of  the  White 
Ash,  but  the  lines  of  pores  in  the  summer  wood  are  longer  than  in  the  White  Ash.  Weighs 
44.35  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  White  Ash,  but  is  somewhat  in- 
ferior to  it  from  a  commercial  point  of  view. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Red  Ash  can  be  distinguished  at  any  season  of 
the  year  from  the  other  species  of  Ash  native  to  Pennsylvania  by  its  velvety-pubescent  twigs 
and  petioles.  In  addition  it  can  be  distinguished  from  the  White  Ash  by  its  fruit,  the  wings  of 
which  are  attached  to  the  apex  and  the  sides  of  the  seeds,  while  those  of  the  White  Ash  are  at- 
tached at  the  apex  only.  The  leaflets  of  the  Red  Ash  are  decidedly  stalked  while  those  of  the 
Black  Ash  are  sessile.  The  buds  of  the  Red  Ash  are  brown  in  color  and  usually  obtuse,  while 
those  of  the  Black  Ash  are  black  in  color  and  usually  acute.  The  bark  of  the  Red  Ash  is 
prominently-fissured  while  that  of  the  Black  Ash  is  not  fissured  but  decidedly  scaly  and 
presents  somewhat  of  a  corky  appearance. 

RANGE — Vermont  west   to  Minnesota   and   southward   to   Florida   and   Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Found  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the  State. 
Not  known  to  occur  in  other  parts. 

HABITAT — Prefers  rich  soil  in  valleys;  also  found  in  swampy  lowlands  and  along  the  margins 
of  streams,  lakes,  and  ponds;  occasionally  found  upon  rather  dry  hillsides. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Red  Ash  in  many  respects  resembles  the  White  Ash, 
but  it  is  of  less  economic  importance  since  it  does  not  attain  so  large  a  size  as  the  White  Ash, 
its  wood  is  not  quite  so  valuable,  and  it  requires  a  somewhat  moister  soil.  The  White 
Ash  will  grow  in  all  places  where  the  Red  Ash  thrives,  and  consequently  the  White  Ash  should 
be  favored.  It  is  sometimes  planted  for  ornamental  purposes  but  the  White  Ash  is  generally 
regarded  more  attractive  and  just  as  free  from  the  attacks  of  insects  and  fungi.  The  only 
place  where  the  Red  Ash  could  be  recommended  for  planting  for  forestry  purposes  would  be  in 
$uch  situations  where  it  is  too  wet  for  the  White  Ash  to  thrive. 


PLATE   CXXVI.     RED  ASH. 

1.  Branch  with  staraiuate  flowers,    x   i. 

2.  A    panicle    of    pistillate    flowers,     x    J. 

3.  A  mature  compound  leaf,   x  J. 

4.  A  cluster  of  fruit,    x   J. 

5.  A  winter  twig,    x  J. 

6.  Section  of   a  winter  twig,    enlarged. 


PLATE  CXXVII.     FRINGE-TREE. 

1.  A    flowering    branch     with     immature    leaves,     x     J 

2.  A  fruiting  branch   with  mature  leaves,   x  1. 

3.  A  winter  twig,    x  \. 

4.  Section  of  a  winter  twig,    natural  size. 


217 


FRINGE-TREE. 

Chionanthus  virginica,  Linnaeus. 

GENUS  DESCRIPTION— The  genus  to  which  the  Fringe-tree  belongs  has  only  one  other  rep- 
resentative. Both  species  are  cultivated  primarily  for  ornamental  purposes.  The  generic  name 
of  these  trees,  Chionanthus,  refers  to  the  white  flowers  which  resemble  snow. 

FORM — A  slender,  small-sized  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  20  ft.  with  a  diameter 
of  6-8  inches,  but  may  reach  a  height  of  40  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  12  inches.  Trunk  usually 
short,  bearing  numerous,  stout,  and  ascending  branches  which  form  a  rather  deep,  narrow 
crown. 

BARK — On  main  trunk  rather  thin,  scaly,  reddish-brown;  on  branches  light  brown  to  orange, 
and  smooth. 

TWIGS— Rather  stout,  light  brown  tinged  with  green,  somewhat  angled,  slightly  hairy. 
Marked  by  large,  conspicuous  and  elevated  leaf-scars  and  dark  colored  lenticels. 

BUDS — Opposite,  ovoid,  sharp-pointed,  about  $  of  an  inch  long,  covered  with  about  5  pairs 
of  scales  which  increase  in  length  from  the  outer  surface  and  ciliated  on  the  margin. 

LEAVES — Simple,  opposite,  thickish,  ovate,  4-8  inches  long,  1-4  Inches  wide,  wedge-shaped  at 
base,  entire  on  margin,  acute  at  apex,  dark  green  above,  pale  and  smooth  below  except  along 
the  veins. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  raised,  semi-circular  in  outline,  upper  side  of  margin  partly  surrounds 
bud;  bundle-scars  solitary,  large,  located  on  cushions. 

FLOWERS — Appear  in  May  or  June  when  leaves  aYe  Just  developing.  Borne  in  drooping 
panicles  about  4-6  inches  long;  perfect,  white,  and  slightly  fragrant.  The  appearance  of  the 
snow  white  flowers  resembles  fringe,  hence  the  common  name  Fringe-tree. 

FRUIT — A  berry,  borne  in  loose  clusters.  Dark  blue  in  color,  about  $-f  of  an  inch  long, 
and  surrounded  at  the  base  by  a  persistent  calyx.  Stalks  bearing  the  fruit  may  bear  leaf-like 
bracts.  Skin  of  fruit  usually  thick  and  stones  usually  thin. 

WOOD — Light  brown  in  color,  with  rather  wide  and  lighter  colored  sapwood;  heavy,  hard, 
close-grained.  Weighs  about  40  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  It  is  put  to  no  special  commercial  uses. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS — The  Fringe-tree,  also  known  as  Old  Man's  Beard, 
White  Fringe,  American  Fringe,  Flowering  Ash,  and  Snow  Flower  tree,  is  native  to  only  a 
few  counties  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State.  This  limited  distribution,  together  with  its 
small  size  and  its  simple,  opposite,  entire-margined  and  thick  leaves  will  enable  one  to  dis- 
tinguish it  quite  readily  during  the  summer.  The  white  fringe-like  panicles  of  flowers  will  also 
assist  during  a  limited  portion  of  early  summer.  In  winter,  the  opposite,  rather  stout  branches 
bearing  sharp-pointed,  opposite  buds  covered  with  more  than  4  pairs  of  scales,  are  also  charac- 
teristic. The  berry-like  fruit  combined  with  the  opposite  branching  will  distinguish  this  tree 
from  practically  all  others  found  in  the  State. 

RANGE — Southern  New  Jersey  and  southeastern  Pennsylvania  to  Florida  and  Texas.  It  is 
essentially  a  southern  species. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— This  tree  is  found  locally  in  about  6  counties  in  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  State.  It  Is  nowhere  abundant,  nor  does  it  attain  any  large  dimensions. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  In  rich,  moist  soil;  also  frequents  banks  of  streams,  lakes  and 
swamps. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES— The  Fringe-tree  is  planted  extensively  for  ornamental 
purposes  as  far  north  as  Massachusetts.  Its  beautiful  flowers  and  its  attractive  form  recommend 
it  for  planting  in  lawns  and  parks.  The  main  objectionable  feature  is  the  fact  that  it  retains 
its  foliage  for  a  relatively  short  period  during  the  summer,  since  the  leaves  are  late  to  appear 
and  early  to  disappear.  The  poor  quality  and  small  size  of  the  wood  which  it  produces,  to- 
gether with  its  limited  distribution  and  selective  situations,  do  not  recommend  it  for  forestry 
purposes.  It  can  readily  be  grafted  upon  our  common  species  of  Ashes.  This  enables  one  to 
develop  it  upon  situations  somewhat  dry  for  the  tree  itself. 


218 


SWEET  VIBURNUM. 
Viburnum  Lentago,  Linnaeus. 

FAMILY  AND  GENUS  DESCRIPTION— The  Honeysuckle  family,  Caprifoliaceae,  is  rather 
widely  distributed  in  temperate  regions.  It  comprises  about  10  genera  with  275  species 
of  shrubs,  trees,  vines,  and  a  few  perennial  herbs.  About  8  genera  are  native  to  North 
America  and  7  to  Pennsylvania.  The  7  genera  native  to  this  State  comprise  about  31  species, 
most  of  which  are  shrubs.  The  principal  native  genera  are:  The  Elderberries  (Sambucus),  the 
Viburnums  (Viburnum),  the  Bush  Honeysuckles  (Diervilla),  the  Honeysuckles  (Lonicera)  and  the 
Snowberries  (Symphoricarpos).  Since  most  of  the  representatives  of  these  genera  are  shrubs 
only  a  few  have  been  discussed  in  this  publication.  A  description  of  the  others  may  be  found 
in  Gray's  New  Manual  of  Botany,  or  Porter's  Flora  of  Pennsylvania.  The  Elders,  belonging  to 
the  genus  Sambucus,  are  among  our  best  known  shrubs.  The  Common  Elderberry  (Sambucus 
canadensis  L.)  is  probably  the  best  known.  The  flowers  are  conspicuous  and  sometimes  used  in 
making  wine.  The  fruit  is  eaten  and  also  made  into  wine,  pies,  and  jellies.  The  Honeysuckles 
(Ixmicera)  are  very  common  in  our  gardens  and  parks  as  ornamental  shrubs  and  vines.  They 
comprise  about  100  species  of  which  number  at  least  10  species  are  native  to  Pennsylvania.  The 
Viburnums  (Viburnum)  also  comprise  about  100  species  of  which  number  about  20  species  are 
native  to  North  America  and  11  to  Pennsylvania.  All  of  our  species  are  usually  shrubs,  rarely 
small  trees.  The  two  species  described  on  the  following  pages  are  occasionally  found  as  small 
trees. 

FORM — A  shrub  or  small  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  10-15  ft.,  but  may  reach  a  height 
of  30  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  10  inches.  Trunk  usually  short,  bearing  a  round-topped  crown  formed 
by  slender  and  usually  drooping  branches. 

BARK — Disagreeable  in  odor,  reddish,  roughened  in  older  specimens  by  division  and  subdivision 
into  thick  plates  which  are  scaly  on  the  surface. 

TWIGS — At  first  greenish  and  covered  with  rusty  hairs,  later  reddish  to  orange  and  rather 
smooth. 

BUDS — Opposite,  long,  slender,  scurfy,  reddish-brown,  covered  by  two  rather  rough  scales. 
Lateral  buds  are  usually  leaf-buds  and  closely  appressed  to  twigs.  Terminal  buds  are  often 
flower  buds  with  a  marked  swelling  at  the  base,  and  about  1  of  an  inch  long. 

LEAVES — Opposite,  simple,  ovate,  about  2i  inches  long,  sharp-pointed,  narrowed  or  rounded 
at  base,  closely  and  very  sharply  serrate  on  margin,  bright  green,  smooth  on  both  upper  and 
lower  surfaces.  Veins  conspicuously  connected  by  veinlets.  •  Petioles  often  winged  and  grooved. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  wide,  broadly  U-shaped,  not  encircling  twigs,  and  usually  with  3 
bundle-scars. 

FLOWERS — Small,  perfect,  white,  appearing  in  May  or  June  in  dense,  many-flowered,  sessile, 
terminal  cymes  which  are  usually  3-5  inches  broad. 

FRUIT — A  black  or  dark  blue  fleshy,  sweet,  rather  juicy  drupe,  containing  a  flat  oval  stone, 
and  grouped  into  small  clusters  borne  on  slender,  reddish,  and  often  drooping  stalks. 

WOOD — Diffuse-porous;  heavy,  hard,  dense,  yellowish-brown,  with  very  disagreeable  and  per 
sistent  odor.  Weighs  45.51  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Not  important  commercially. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Sweet  Viburnum,  also  known  as  Sheepberry, 
Nannybery,  and  Wild  Raisin,  resembles  the  Black  Haw  more  closely  than  any  other  of  our 
native  Viburnums.  It  can  be  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  its  leaf-blades  with  acuminate 
apexes,  its  long-pointed  buds,  and  its  winged  petioles.  The  Black  Haw  has  leaf-blades  with 
obtuse  or  merely  acute  apexes,  short-pointed  buds,  and  no  winged  leaf-petioles.  The  small 
lateral  branches  of  the  Black  Haw  are  often  stiff  and  stand  out  almost  at  right  angles  to  the 
main  axis,  while  those  of  tha  Sweet  Viburnum  are  flexible  and  more  erect. 

RANGE — Quebec  to  Manitoba,   south  to  Georgia,   Indiana  and  Missouri. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA — Common  in  the  eastern,  southern,  and  central  parts  of 
the  State;  local  in  the  western  part,  and  less  frequent  in  the  northern  part. 

HABITAT — Usually  found  along  or  near  banks  of  streams  and  borders  of  lakes  located  in  or 
pear  wooded  areas. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — The  Sweet  Viburnum  has  no  commercial  value,  so  far  as 
wood  production  is  concerned.  Its  form,  flowers,  fruit,  and  foliage  make  it  one  of  the  most 
attractive  of  our  small  ornamental  trees, 


PLATE  CXXVIII.     SWEET  VIBURNUM. 


1.  A  twig  showing  the  opening  of  a  terminal  bud,   x  J. 

2.  A  branchlet  with  leaves  and  two  cymes  of  flowers,  x  J. 

3.  A  branchlet  with  leaves  and  two  clusters  of  fruit,  x  5. 

4.  A    winter    twig    with    lateral    leaf-buds    and    terminal    flower 

5.  A  leaf-scar  with  three  bundle-scars,   enlarged. 


buds,     natural    size. 


PLATE  CXXIX.     BLACK  HAW. 


1.  A  branchlet  with  leaves  and  two  cymes  of  flowers,  x  J. 

2.  A  branchlet  with  leaves  and  two  clusters  of  fruit,   x  J. 

3.  A   winter  twig  with  a  large  terminal   flower  bud  and    three   leaf-buds.    Two   leaf-buds   are  op- 

posite,  and  located  about  the  middle  of  the  twig,   while  the  third  is  at  the  base  and  to  the 
right  of  the  terminal  flower  bud,  natural  size. 


219 


BLACK  HAW. 
Viburnum  prunifolium,  Linnaeus. 

FORM — A  shrub  or  small  tree  usually  attaining  a  height  of  15  ft.,  but  may  reach  a  height 
of  35  ft.  with  a  diameter  of  10-12  inches.  Trunk  short,  often  crooked,  bearing  a  rather  broad 
and  round-topped  crown  formed  by  stiff  lateral  branches. 

BARK — About  2/5  of  an  inch  thick,    reddish-brown,   rough,   broken  into  thick  plate-like  scales. 

TWIGS — At  first  reddish  and  smooth,  then  green,  and  later,  during  first  winter,  spine-like, 
gray  tinged  with  red,  and  often  covered  with  thin  film-like  bloom.  Usually  marked  with 
orange-colored  lenticels. 

BUDS — Opposite,  J-J  of  an  inch  long,  covered  with  2  rusty  pubescent  scales  which  enlarge 
into  leaf-like  bodies  in  spring  when  growth  begins.  Axillary  buds  4  of  an  inch  long,  flattened, 
closely  appressed  to  twig.  Flower  buds  swollen  near  base. 

LEAVES — Opposite,  simple,  oval,  1-3  inches  long,  obtuse  or  slightly  pointed  at  apex,  usually 
wedge-shaped  at  base,  finely  serrate  on  margin,  sometimes  leathery  when  old,  dark  green  above 
and  pale  green  below;  petioles  usually  round,  rarely  winged. 

LEAF-SCARS — See    "Leaf -scars"   under  Sweet   Viburnum. 

FLOWERS — Small,  perfect,  white,  appearing  about  May  in  dense,  many-flowered,  sessile,  and 
terminal  cymes  which  are  3-4  inches  broad. 

FRUIT — Fleshy,  dark  blue  drupe  which  is  persistent,  sweet  and  rather  juicy;  contains  a  flat 
oval  stone;  grouped  in  few-fruited  clusters  borne  on  reddish  stalks. 

WOOD — See    "Wood"   under   Sweet   Viburnum. 

DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS— The  Black  Haw,  also  known  as  Sweet  Haw,  Sheep- 
berry,  Stag-bush,  and  Nanny-berry,  closely  resembles  the  Sweet  Viburnum.  See  "Distinguishing 
Characteristics"  under  Sweet  Viburnum.  The  Black  Haw  and  the  Sweet  Viburnum  may  further 
be  distinguished  from  the  Maple-leaved  Viburnum  (Viburnum  acerifolium)  by  the  palmate  vena- 
tion of  the  leaf-blade  and  the  small  gaping  buds  of  the  latter,  and  from  the  Arrowwood 
(Viburnum  dentatum)  by  the  coarsely  dentate  leaves,  the  small  gaping  buds,  and  the  evidently- 
stalked  flower  clusters  of  the  latter. 

RANGE — Connecticut,    south    to   Georgia,    and   west   to    Arkansas. 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA— Common  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the 
State,  and  local  to  sparse  in  the  other  parts. 

HABITAT — Prefers  dry  rocky  hillsides.  Sometimes  found  in  rather  moist  locations.  Fre- 
quent along  fences  and  roadsides  where  seeds  may  have  been  dropped  by  birds.  Often  formg 
almost  impenetrable  thickets  along  fences,  especially  when  coppiced. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SPECIES — It  is  of  no  commercial  importance  as  a  wood-producing 
tree,  but  for  ornamental  purposes  deserves  to  be  planted  extensively.  The  bark  of  the  roots 
is  valuable  medicinally. 


220 


GLOSSARY. 

Abortion.    Imperfect    development    or    non-development   of   an   organ. 

Abortive.    That   which   is    brought   forth    prematurely;    coming    to    naught   before    it    is    completed. 

Achene.    A  small,   hard,   dry,   1-celled,    1-seeded  fruit  which  does  not  open  by  valves. 

Acrid.    Sharp   or   biting   to    the   taste. 

Acuminate.    Decidedly    tapering    at    the   end. 

Acute.    Tapering  at  the  end. 

Aesthetic.    Pertaining   to   the   beautiful. 

Afforesting.    Turning   ground    into   forest   after   being    without   a   forest   for    a    considerable    length 

of   time. 

Alluvial.    Relating  to  the  deposits  of  sand,    clay,    or  gravel  made  by   river   action. 
Alternate.    Not  opposite  to  each  other,    but  scattered   singly   along  the  axis. 
Ament,    A  peculiar,    scaly,    unisexual  spike. 

Anther.    The  enlarged  terminal  part  of  a  stamen  which  bears  the  pollen. 
Apex.    The  tip  or  end  of  a  bud  or  leaf,  i.  e.  the  part  opposite  the  base. 
Apical.    Pertaining  to  the  tip,    end,   or   apex. 
Appresscd.    Lying  tight  or  close  against. 
Arborescent.    Tree-like  in  appearance,   size,   and  growth. 
Aromatic.    Fragrant ;   with  a  pleasing  odor. 
Astringent.    Contracting;   drawing,  together ;   binding. 
Axil.    The  upper  angle  formed  by  a  leaf  or  branch  with  the  stem. 
Axillary.    Situate  in  an  axil. 
Axis.    The  central  line  of  an  organ ;   a  stem. 
Bark.    The  outer  covering  of  a  trunk  or  branch. 
Basal.    Pertaining  to  or  situated  at  base. 
Berry.    A  fruit  which  is  fleshy  or  pulpy  throughout. 

Bisexual.    Having  both  stamens  and  pistils,   1.   e.   male  and  female  organs. 
Bloom.    A  powdery  or  somewhat  waxy   substance  easily   rubbed   off. 
Bole.    The  body  or  stem  of  a  tree. 
Boreal.    Pertaining  to  the  north. 

Bract.    A  modified  leaf  subtending  a  flower  or  belonging  to  an  inflorescence. 
Bud-scales.    Modified   leaves   covering   a   bud. 
Bundle-scars.    Scars   on    the    surface   of    a    leaf-scar.      Severed    ends    of    the    flbro-vascular    bundles 

which  connected  the  twigs  with  the  leaves. 
Calyx.    The  outer  portion  of  a  flower,   usually  green  in  color. 
Cambial.    Pertaining  to  the  cambium. 

Cambium.    A  thin-walled  formative  tissue  between  the  bark  and  wood. 
Capsule,    A  dry  fruit  composed  of  more  than  one  carpel  and   splitting  open   at   maturity. 
Carpel.    A  simple  pistil  or  one  member  of  a  compound  pistil. 
Catkin.    An  ament  or  spike  of  unisexual  flowers. 

Chambered.    Said  of   the  pith   when   interrupted   by   hollow   spaces   at  rather   regular   intervals.. 
Ciliate.    Fringed  with  hairs  on  the  margin. 
Coherent.    Sticking   together ;    connected. 
Collateral.    Accessory  buds  at  the  sides  of  axillary  buds. 
Complete.    Said  of  flowers  when  all  parts  are  present. 
Compound.    Composed  of  two  or  more  similar  parts  united  in  a  whole. 

Concentric.    Said  of  growth   rings  when  the  growth   center   coincides   with   the  geometrical   center. 
Confluent.    Flowing    together ;    uniting.      Said    of    the    bundle-scars    when    the    separate    ones    flow 

together  and  appear  as  one. 
Conical.    Cone-shaped. 

Conifers.    A  group  of  trees  which  usually  produce  their  fruit  in  the  form  of  a  cone. 
Coniferous.    Cone-bearing. 
Conniving.    Brought  close  together. 
Contorted,    Twisted  together  or  back  upon  itself. 
Convergent.    Tending   to   one   point. 
Cordate.    Heart-shaped. 
Corolla,    The   inner   portion   of   perianth,    composed   of    petals.     The   bright    colored    part   of    most 

flowers. 

Corymb.    A  flat-topped  or  convex  flower  cluster,  blooming  first  at  the  edges. 
Corrugated.    Shaped   into  grooves,    folds,    or   wrinkles. 
Crown.    The  upper  mass  of  branches,    also  known   as   head. 

Cyme.    A  flower  cluster  blooming  from  apex   or  middle  first,    usually   somewhat  flat. 
Cymose.    In  a  cyme;   cyme-like. 

Deciduous.    Falling  off,   usually  at  the  close  of  the  season. 
Decurrent.    Extending  down  the  stem  below  the  insertion. 
Defoliation.    Removal  of  foliage. 
Dehiscent.    Splitting  open. 
Deliquescent.    Said  of  the  form  of  a  tree  with  a  broad  spreading  habit.     The  branches  subdivide 

until  they  apparently  disappear. 
Deltoid.    Delta-like,   triangular. 

Dentate.    Toothed,   usually  with  the  teeth  directed  outwards. 
Diffuse-porous.    Equal-pored.     Said  of  wood  when  pores  in  a  growth   ring  are  equal  In  size. 


221 


Digitately-compound.    With    the    members    arising    at    the    same    point   at    the    end    or    top   of    the 

support. 

Dioecious,    Unisexual,    with  the  two  kinds  of   flowers  on  different  plants. 
Disseminated.    Scattered ;    thrown  broadcast. 

Divergent.    Pointing   away ;   extending  out.     Said  of   buds  which  point  away  from  the  twigs. 
Downy,    Covered   with   fine  hairs. 
Drupe.    A  fleshy  fruit  with  a  pit  or  stone. 
Eccentric.    Not    circular.      Said    of    growth    rings    when    growth    center    does    not    coincide    with 

geometrical  center. 
Elongated.  Long  drawn  out. 
Embryo.  A  young  plant  in  a  seed. 

Entire-margined.    Margin   smooth,    not  cut  or   roughened. 
Epidermis.    The  outer  layer  or  covering  of  plants. 
Equidistant.    Equal   distances   apart. 
Even-pinnate.    With  all  the  leaflets  occurring  in  pairs. 

Excurrent.    Said  of  a  tree  with  a  continuous  trunk  and  erect  habit  of  growth. 
Exfoliation.    Splitting  or  cleaving  off  of  outer  layers  of  bark. 
Exotic.    Of  foreign  origin. 

Exudation.    Oozing  out  of  sap,   resin,   or  milk. 
Fascicle.    A  cluster,    usually  dense. 

Fertilization.    The  process  by  which  pollen  stimulates  the  ovule  to  produce  a  seed. 
Fetid.    Ill-smelling. 

Fibro-vascular   bundles.    The   conducting   strands   which    connect   the   leaves    with   the   stem. 
Fibrous.    Consisting  of  fibers;   woven  in  texture. 
Filament.    The  stalk  bearing  the  anther. 
Fissures.    Grooves,   furrows,  or  channels  as  in  the  bark. 
Flora.    The  complete  system  of  plants  found  in  a  given  area. 
Fluted,    Grooved,    corrugated,    channeled. 

Follicles.    A  dry  fruit  of  one  carpel,   splitting  on  one  side  only. 
Forestry.    The   rational   treatment   of   woodlands   for   their   products. 

Fruit.    A  developing  or  ripened  ovary.     It  may  also  include  the  axis  containing  the  real  fruit. 
Fungus.    A  plant  devoid  of  green  color  such  as  mushrooms  and  rots. 
Gaping.    With  an  open  slit  at  the  end  or  apex. 
Genus.    A  group  of  related  species,  as  the  pines  or  the  oaks. 
Glabrous.    Smooth,    without   hairs. 
Glandular.    Bearing  glands  or  gland-like. 

Glaucous.    Covered  with  a  bluish  or  whitish  waxy  coating;   a  bloom. 
Globose.    Ball-like  or  nearly  so. 
Globular.    Ball-like. 
Habitat.    The  home  of  a  plant. 

Head.    A  dense  cluster  of  sessile  flowers  or  the  crown  of  a  tree. 
Heartwood.    The  dead,   central,   usually  highly  colored  portion  of  the  trunk. 
Herbaceous.    Herb-like,    soft. 

Heterogeneous.    Composed  of  dissimilar  elements,   as  the  wood  of  the  hardwoods. 
Homogeneous.    Composed  of  closely  resembling  elements,    as   the  wood  of  the  conifers. 
Imbricated.    Overlapping  like  the  slate  on  a  roof. 

Incomplete.    Said  of  flowers  in  which  one  of  the  outer  parts  is  wanting. 
Increment,    Growth ;    increase. 

Indehiscent.    Applied  to  fruits  that  do  not  split  open  to  let  out  the  seeds. 
Indigenous.    Applied  to  plants  that  are  native  to  a  certain   locality. 
Inflorescence.    The  flowering  part  of  a  plant,   and  especially  its  arrangement. 
Intolerant.    Not  shade  enduring.     Requiring  sunlight. 

Involucre.    A  circle  of  bracts  surrounding  a  flower  or  cluster  of  flowers. 

Irregular.    Said   of  flowers   showing  inequality   in   the  size,    form,    or  union  of  similar  parts. 
Keeled.    With  a  central  ridge,   like  the  keel  of  a  boat. 
Lamina.    The  blade  or   flattened   portion   of   a  leaf. 
Lanceolate.    Shaped  like  a  lance;   several  times  longer  than  wide. 
Lateral,    Situated  on  the  side,   as  the  buds  along  the  side  of  the  twig. 
Leaflets.    One  of  the  small  blades  or  divisions  of  a  compound  leaf. 
Leaf-scars.    The  scar  left,  by  the  falling  of  a  leaf. 
Lenticels.    A   corky  growth  on  young  or  sometimes  older  bark   which   admits   air  to   the  interior 

of  the  twig  or  branch. 

Linear.    Line-like,   long  and  narrow,    with   parallel  edges. 
Lobed.    Said  of  leaves  that  have  the  margins  more  or  less  cut  or  divided. 
Lunate.    Of  the  shape  of  a  half-moon  or  crescent. 
Manna.    A   sweetish  secretion  used  in  medicine  as  a   mild   laxative. 
Medullary.    Pertaining  to  the  pith  or  medulla. 
Medullary  Ray.    Radial  lines   of   tissues   crossing   the  growth    rings   at  right   angles   and   extending 

Into   the  bark. 

Midrib.    The  central  or  main  rib  or  vein  of  a  leaf. 
Mongrel.    Composed  of  two  elements  of  entirely  different  origin. 
Monoe'cious.    Bearing  stamens  and  pistils  in  separate  flowers  on  the  same  plant. 
Morphological.    Pertaining  to   the  form   and   structure  of   plants. 
Mucilaginous.    Shiny,  or  gummy  when  chewed. 

NaJced.    Said  of   buds  without  scales  and  seeds   without  a  covering. 
Naval  Stores.    Refers  to  tar,    turpentine,    resin,    etc. 


222 


Nerve.    One  of  the  lines  or  veins  running  through  a  leaf. 

Node.    A  place  on  a  twig  where  one  or  more  leaves  originate. 

Non-porous.    Without   pores. 

Nut.    A  dry,    1-seeded,   iudehiscent  fruit  with  a  hard  covering. 

Nutlet.    A  small  nut. 

06-.    A  prefix   meaning   inverted  or  reversed. 

Oblique.    Slanting,    uneven. 

Oblong.    About  twice  as  long  as  wide,   the  sides  nearly  parallel. 

Obovatc.    Reversed  egg-shaped. 

Obtuse.    Blunt. 

Odd-pinnate.    With  an  odd  or  unpaired  leaflet  at  the  tip  of  the  compound  leaf. 

Opposite.    Said  of  leaves  and  buds,   directly  across  from  each  other. 

Orbicular.    Circular-. 

Ovary.    Tke  part  of  the  pistil  producing  the  seed. 

Ovate.    Egg-shaped. 

Ovoid.    Egg-shaped  or  nearly  so. 

Ovule.    The  body  which  after  fertilization  becomes  the  seed. 

Palmate.    Hand-shaped;    radiately   divided. 

Panicle.    A  compound  flower  cluster,   the  lower  branches  of  which  are  longest  and  bloom  first. 

Parasite.    Growing  upon  and  obtaining  its  nourishment  from  some  other  plant. 

Parenchyma.    A  class  of  plant  tissue  found  in  the  green  layers  of  the  bark,   in  wood  and  pith. 

Pedicel.    The  stalk  of  a  single  flower. 

Peduncle.    The  stalk  of  a  flower  cluster  or  «f  a  solitary  flower. 

Pendulous.      Hanging. 

Perennial.    Last  for  more  than  one  year. 

Perfect.    A  flower  with  both  stamens  and  pistils. 

Perianth.    A  term  applied  to  the  calyx  and  corolla  taken  together. 

Persistent.    Remaining  after  blooming,  fruiting,  or  maturing. 

Petals.    The  part  of  a  corolla,  usually  colored. 

Petiole.    The  stalk  of  a  leaf.. 

Pinna.    A  division,  part,  or  leaflet  of  a  pinnate  leaf. 

Pinnate.    With  leaflets  on  both  sides  of  a  stalk. 

Pistil.    The  central  part  of  the  flower  containing  the  prospective  seed. 

Pistillate.    Bearing   pistils  but  no  stamens. 

Pith.    The  soft  central  part  of  a  twig. 

Pod.    Any  dry  and  dehiscent  fruit. 

Pollen.    The  dust-like  substance  found  in  the  anthers  of  a  flower. 

Pollination.    The  process  of  bringing  the  pollen  of  the  male  flower  in  contact  with  the  stigma  of 

the   female    flower. 

Polygamous.    With  both  perfect  and  imperfect,   staminate  or  pistillate,    flowers. 
Pome.    A  fleshy  fruit  with  a  core,  such  as  the  apple. 
Prickle.    A  sharp-pointed,    needle-like  outgrowth. 
Profligate.    Wasteful,    extravagant. 

Propagative.    Said  of  buds  containing  reproductive  organs. 
Pseudo-.    A  prefix  meaning  false,  not  true. 
Pubescent.    Hairy. 

Pungent.    Ending  in  a  sharp  point;  acrid. 

Pyramidal.    Shaped  like  a  pyramid  with  the  broadest  part  near  the  base. 
Raceme.    A  simple  inflorescence  of  flowers  borne  on   pedicels  of  equal  length   and   arranged  on  a 

common,    elongated   axis. 
Ray.    See  Medullary  ray. 

Re  flexed.    Abruptly   turned   backward   or  downward. 
Reforestation.    The  process  of  putting  a  forest  growth  upon  an  area  which  had  its  forest  growth 

removed   recently. 

Regular.    Said  of  flowers  which  are  uniform   in  shape  or  structure. 

Resin-ducts.    A  passage  for  the  conduction  of  resin  found   in  the  leaves  and  wood  of  the  Pines. 
Ring-porous.    Said  of  wood  which  has  pores  of  unequal  size,    the  larger  ones   being   found   in  the 

spring  wood  and  the  smaller  In  the  summer  wood. 
Rugose.    Wrinkled. 

Rugosities.    Projections,   wrinkles,   knobs. 
Saccharine.    Pertaining  to  or   having  the  qualities   of   sugar. 
Samara.    An  indehiscent  winged  fruit. 

Sapwood.    The  recently  formed,   usually  light  wood,    lying  outside  of  the   heartwood. 
Scales.    The  small,    modified  leaves  which  protects  the  growing-point  of  a  bud  or  the  part  of  a 

cone  which  bears  the  seeds.    The  small  flakes  into  which  the  outer  bark  of  a  tree  divides. 
Scurfy.    Covered  with  small  bran-like  scales. 
Sepal.    One  of  the  parts  of  the  calyx. 
Serrate.    Having  sharp  teeth  pointing  forward. 
Sessile.    Seated;   without  a  fltalk. 
Sheath.    A   tubular  envelope  or  covering. 

Shrub.    A  low  woody  growth  which  usually  brandies  near  the  base. 
Bilky.    Covered  with  soft,   straight,   fine  hairs. 
Simple.    Consisting  of  one   part,    not  compound. 
Sinus.    The  cleft  or  opening  between  two  lobes. 
Species.    A  group  of  like  individuals  as  Red  Oak,  White  Oak,   etc. 
Spike.    An  enlongated   axis  bearing  sessile  flowers. 


223 


Spile.    A  small  peg  or  wooden   pin.     Sometimes  synonymous   with   pile. 

Spine.    A  sharp  woody  outgrowth. 

Stamen.    The  part  of  a  flower  which  bears  the  pollen. 

Staminate.    Said  of  flowers  which  bear  only  stamens.     Sometimes  spoken  of  as  male. 

Sterigmata.    The    projections    from    twigs    bearing    leaves. 

Sterile.    Barren;    unproductive. 

Stigma.    The  end  of  a  pistil  through  which  pollination  takes  place. 

Stipule.    A  leaf-appendage  at  the  base  of  the  leaf-stalk. 

Stipule-scar.    The  scar  left  by  the  fall  of  the  stipule. 

Stoma.    An  opening  in  the  epidermis  of  a  leaf  communicating  with  the  internal  air  cavities. 

Striote.    Marked  with  fine  elongated  ridges  or  lines. 

Striations.    Long  narrow  lines  or  ridges. 

Strobile.    A  fruit  marked  by"  overlapping  scales  as  in  the  Pine,   Birches,  etc. 

Style.    The 'pin-like  portion  of  the  pistil  bearing  the  stigma. 

Sub-.    A   prefix   meaning  under   or   nearly. 

Sucker.    A  shoot  arising  from  an  underground  bud. 

Superposed.    Said  of  buds  when  they  are  arranged  one  above  the  other. 

Symmetrical.    Regular    as    to   the   number   of    parts.     Having    the    same   number    of    parts    in   each 

circle. 

Terminal.    Pertaining  to  buds  located  at  the  end  of  twigs. 
Thorn.    A  stiff,    woody,   sharp-pointed  projection. 

Tolerant.    Applied   to   trees   which   endure  certain  factors,    particularly   shade. 
Tomentum.    A   dense  layer  of   hairs. 
Tomentose.    Densely   pubescent;    hairy. 
Truncate.    Ending  abruptly,   as  if  cut  off  at  the  end. 
Tubercle.    A  small  tuber  or  tuber-like  body. 
Tufted.    Growing  in  clusters. 

Umbel.    A  flower-cluster  with  all  the  pedicels  arising  from  the  same  point. 
Unisexual.    Consisting  of  one  sex  only,   either  staminate  or  pistillate. 
Valvate.    Said  of  buds  in  which  the  scales  merely  meet  without  overlapping. 
Vegetative.    Said  of  buds  which  do  not  contain  reproductive  organs. 
Veins.    Threads  of  fibro-vascular  tissue  in  leaves  or  other  organs. 
Versatile.    Used  for  many  purposes. 
Viscid.    Glutinous;    sticky. 
Whorl.    A  group  of  three  or  more  similar  organs,    as  leaves  or  buds,    arranged  about  the  same 

place  of  attachment. 
Whorled.    Borne  in  a  whorl. 
Zylology.    The  science  which  treats  of  the  form  and  structure  of  wood. 


(224) 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Abies   balsamen , 84 

Abies    Fraseri ,     84 

Acacia ,    181 

Three-thorned ,    179 

Acer,    190 

Negundo ,    197 

•           pennsylvauicum ,     192 

platanoides,    198 

Pseudo-platauus ,    198 

rubrum ,    f)f> ,  f><> ,  1 96 

saccharinum ,    195 

saccharuiu 61 ,  194 

spicatum,   193 

Aceraceae,     190 

Aesculus: 

glabra,  200 

octandni,    201 

Hippocastanum ,   200 

Ailanthus,   38,  187 

glandulosa ,    187 

Aider,    , 38,  47,  48 

Black, 39,  121 

Smooth,    121 

Alders,    45 

Alnus  rugosa,   121 

Alternate-leaved  Dogwood ,    205 

Amelanchier   canadensis,    ...' 174 

Anacardiaceae,     182 

Angelica  Tree,    199 

Anonaceae,     160 

Apple,  American  Crab,  172 

Aralia  spinosa ,    199 

Arbor  Vitae,   41,  86 

Arrow-wood, 219 

Ash,    22,  23,  47,  212 

Basket,     215 

Biltmore,     213 

Black,    215 

Brown, 215 

Canadian ,     214 

Green,    213 

Hoop,    215 

Mountain,    48,  173 


Page. 

Red, 216 

White,     214 

Ash-leaved  Maple,    197 

Asimina  triloba,    160 

Aspen,     38,  94 

American,    96 

Large-toothed ,     97 

Quaking,    96 

Small-toothed ,  96 

Trembling,    96 

Bairn  of  Gilead ,    94 

Balsam,     84 

Basswood,     35,  38,  44,  48,  202 

White,     203 

Beaked  Hazelnut,   122 

Beaked   Willow,    93 

Bear  Oak, 144 

Bebb's  Willow,    93 

Beech,  30,  35,  39,  45,  49,  124,  125 

American ,    125 

Blue,     120 

European ,    124 

Water,    120 

Beech    family ,    123 

Bee-tree,    202 

Benzoin  aestivale,    161 

Betula,     \  ..  112 

alba  var.   papyrifera,    ..: 114 

lenta, 118 

lutea,    115 

nigra,     116 

populifolia ,     117 

Big  Tree  of  Tule,   ...  32 

Big  Trees,    33 

Bignoniaceae,    211 

Bignonia   family,    211 

Bilsted,     163 

Birch: 

Black, 118 

Canoe,     114 

Cherry,     118 

Gray, 115,  117 

Oldfield,  117 


15 


(225) 


226 


Page. 

Paper,    36,  57,  114 

Poplar,     117 

Poverty,   117 

Red,     116 

River,    57,  116 

Silver,   115 

Sweet, 118 

Yellow, 115 

Birch  family,    Ill 

Birches,    30,31,38,44,45,47,48,112 

Bladder  Nut,    49 

Bow-wood ,    153 

Box    Elder, 197 

Boxwood,     204 

Buckeye: 

Big, 201 

Fetid,    57,  200 

Ohio,    200 

Stinking,    200 

Sweet,   57,  201 

Yellow,    201 

Buckeyes,    41 

Butternut,    38,  102 

Buttonball 175 

Buttonwood,  31,34,35,39,47,175 

Calico-bush,    207 

Canoe   Birch,    114 

Caprifoliaceae,    218 

Carolina  Poplar,   99 

Carpinus  caroliniana ,  120 

Carya,     104 

alba,     108 

cordiformis,    110 

glabra,    109 

illinoensis,     : 105 

laciniosa,    107 

microcarpa,     105 

ovata,    106 

Cashew    family, 182 

Castanea, 124 

alnifolia,    ..!:...,....      124 

dentata,    .........;..      126 

pumila,    ;.....      127 

Catalpa,     ; . . ...  .38,  211 

bignonioides,    . . 211 

Eastern, 211 

Western, 211 

Cedar: 

Coast  White,    85 

Red,    20,  57,  87 

White,     36,  57,  85 


Page. 
Celtis: 

crassifolia,    152 

occidentalis,    152 

Cercis  canadensis,    180 

Chamaecyparis  thyoides,  85 

Cherry : 

Appalachian,    165 

Bird,    168 

Black,    166 

Cabinet,    160 

Choke,     167 

Domestic,     165 

Fire,     168 

Perfumed,    165 

Pin,    168 

Rum,    166 

Sand,     165 

Sour,    165 

Sweet,     165 

Wild,     166 

Wild  Black,   45,  166 

Wild   Red,    168 

Chestnut,     20,23,27,30,31,33,38,40, 

45,46,47,57.124,126 

Chinquapin,    33,  127 

Chionanthus  virginica,    217 

Cigar  Tree,    211 

Coffee  Nut,    178 

Coffee-tree,    Kentucky,    178 

Colorado  Blue  Spruce,    79 

Cornaceae,    204 

Cornel,   Flowering,    204 

Cornus: 

alternifolia,    205 

florida, 204 

Corylus: 

americana,    122 

rostrata, 122 

Cotton   Tree, 99 

Cottonwood,     . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . :'. . .  .94,  99 

Black, ...;.;,...:  98 

River, 98 

Swamp,    ;.......  98 

Crab  Apple,  American, 172 

Crack    Willow, 89 

Crataegus: 

coccinea,    171 

Crus-galli,   170 

Cucumber  Tree,  157 

Custard   Apple  family,    160 

Cypress,    Bald,    30 


227 


Page. 

Date-plum,     210 

Deerwood,     119 

Diospyros  virginiana,   210 

Dogwood,     44,  204 

Alternate-leaved,    205 

Blue,    205 

Flowering,    204 

Purple,    205 

Ebenaceae,     210 

Ebony  family,  210 

Elder,    

Elderberry ,    Common ,    218 

Elkwood,    158 

Elm,     38 

American ,    151 

English,    149 

Gray,  151 

Moose,    150 

Red,   150 

Slippery,    150 

Water,    151 

White,  151 

Elms,     46,  47,  149 

Ericaceae,     207 

Evergreen    Oaks,    128 

Fagaceae,    123 

Fagus: 

grandifolia,     125 

sylvatica,   124 

Filbert,  122 

Fir,  Balsam,  35,  84 

Fire  Cherry,   168 

Firs,  31,  55 

Fraxinus,     212 

americana,    55,214 

Biltmoreana,    213 

excelsior,    212 

nigra,      215 

ornus,    212 

pennsylvanica  var.  lanceolata,      213 

pennsylvanica,  216 

Fringe    Tree,    217 

Gleditsia    triacanthos,    179 

Great  Laurel,   208 

Gum: 

Black,    33,36,38,206 

Red,     163 

Sour,    206,  209 

Sweet,     35,  163 

Gymnocladus   dioica,    .., 178 

Hackberry ,     35,38,47,152 

Hackmatack,    77 

Hack-tree,  152 


Page. 

Hamamelidaceae,    162 

Hamamelis   virginiana,    162 

Haven-wood,    187 

Haw,    170 

Black,    219 

Sweet,    219 

Hawthorn,    170,  171 

Scarlet,     171 

Hazelnut,    45 

American,     122 

Beaked,    122 

Common,     47 

Heath   family,    207 

Hedge-tree,  153 

Hemlock,    31,33,35,36,50,51,57,83 

Carolina,    83 

Ground, 67 

Spruce,   83 

Hercules'   Club,    199 

Hickory: 

Big  Bud,   108 

Big  Shell-bark,  107 

Bitter,  110 

Bitter  Nut,  110 

Broom,    109 

Mocker  Nut,  108 

Pecan,     105 

Pignut,   109 

Shag-bark,    36,106,107 

Shell-bark,    106 

Small-fruited,    105 

Swamp,    110 

White-heart,  108 

Holly: 

American,    31,188 

Deciduous,    31 

European,     188 

Large-leaved,   189 

Mountain,    189 

White,  188 

Honey  Locust,    38,  179 

Honey  Shucks,  179 

Honeysuckle  family,    218 

Hop  Hornbeam,  American,  ..44,45,49,119 

Hornbeam,  American,    120 

Horse-chestnut,    200 

Ilex: 

aquifolium,    188 

monticola,    189 

opaca,    , 188 

verticillata,     189 

Indian   Bean ,    211 

Ironwood,    ..119,  120 


.      Page. 

Judas  Tree,    180 

Juglans,     101 

cinerea ,     102  j 

nigra,     103 

regia,    101 

Juglandaceae, 100 

June   Berry,    174 

Juniper: 

Common,     •  .41,87 

Dwarf,    87 

Red,    87 

Juniperus: 

communis, 87 

virginiana ,     87 

Kalinia   latifolia,    207 

Kentucky    Coffee-tree,     38,  41,  178 

Larch,    30,  50,  55 

American,    67,  77 

Black,    77 

European ,     77 

Larix: 

laricina ,     77 

decidua,    77 

Lauraceae,     161 

Laurel: 

Great,    208 

Mountain,    31,  207 

Laurel  family ,    161 

Laurel  Magnolia,    31,  57,  156 

Leguminosae,     176 

Leverwood ,   119 

Lime-tree,    202 

Linden ,     202 

White,     203 

Linden    family,    202 

Liquidambar,   163 

styraciflua,       163 

Liriodendron   Tulipifera,    159 

Live    Oaks,    128 

Locust: 

Black,    181 

Common,    41,42,45,48,181 

Honey,    38,  179 

Sweet,    179 

White,     181 

Yellow,    181 

Lombardy  Poplar,    33,  94 

Lynn,     202 

Madura  pomifera ,    153 

Magnolia,    38,41,44,57,155 

acnmiuata ,    157 

Laurel,    '. 31,57,156 

Smnll,     156 


Page. 

tripetala,    158 

virginiana,    57,  156 

Magnoliaceae,     155 

Magnolia  family,    155 

Mahogany,    178 

Maple: 

Ash-leaved ,     197 

Hard,    194 

Mountain, 38,57,193 

Norway,     198 

Red,    38,56,57,196 

River,    195 

Rock,     194 

Silver,     195 

Soft,     195,  196 

Striped,    38,39,45,192 

Sugar,     38,60,61,194 

Swamp, 196 

Sycamore,     198 

White,     195,196 

Maple  family,   190 

Michaux   Basswood ,    202 

Moosewood ,    192 

Morus: 

alba,     154 

rubra ,     154 

Mulberry,    45,  47 

Black,     154 

Red,     154 

White,     154 

Nanuyberry,     218,  219 

Nettle   family,    47,  148 

Nettle-tree,     152 

Nicker   Tree,    178 

Ninebark,    164 

Nyssa  sylvatica,    206 

Oak: 

Barren ,     145 

Bear,    56,  144 

Black,     35,  142 

Black  Jack,    145 

Bur,     134 

Chestnut,     137 

Chinquapin ,     136,  138 

Dwarf  Chinq unpin ,    138 

Ground, 144 

Iron,    133 

Jack,    145,  146 

Laurel,    146 

Mossy-cup ,     134 

Over-cup,     134 

Peach ,     147 

Pin,     33,34,35,140,147 


229 


Page. 

Post,    133 

Red,    33,56,139 

Rock,     40,  137 

Scarlet,     141 

Scrub,    ........33,56,144 

Scrub   Chestnut,    138 

Shingle,    .. 146 

Spanish ,     143 

Swamp ,    140,  147 

Swamp    White,    135 

Water,    140,146,147 

White,     33,57,132 

Willow,     147 

Yellow,    136,  142 

Oilnut,    102 

Old  Man's  Beard,    217 

Olea  Europaea ,    212 

Oleaceae,     212 

Olive   family,    212 

Olive  Tree,    212 

Osage    Apple-tree,    153 

Osage  Orange,    47,  153 

Osier,    Green,    205 

Ostrya    virginiana,    119 

Oxydendrum   arboreum,    209 

Papaw,    38,41,45,47,160 

Paradise  Tree, 187 

Peach,     165 

1'epperidge,     206 

Persimmon,     50,  210 

Physocarpus    opulifolius,    164 

Picea,    78 

Abies,    79,  82 

mariana,    81 

pungens,     79 

rubra ,    80 

Pigeon-berry ,     205 

Pinaceae,     55,  67 

Pine: 

Austrian ,     68 

Jack,     ; 55,  71 

Jersey  or  Scrub,    33,57,75 

Nigger,     55,  71 

Norway,     72 

Pitch, 20,55,71 

Poverty,     73 

Red,     22,55,57,72 

Scotch,    68,  76 

Pine: 

Short-leaf,     74 

Table    Mountain,    ..57,  73 

White,     20,22,31,32,33,48,55,70 

Yellow,  ...57,  74 


Page . 

Pine   family,    55,  67 

Pinus: 

echinata,    74 

laricio   var.    austriaca,    68 

pungens,     73 

resinosa,     55,  72 

rigida,    55,  71 

Strobus,    55,  70 

sylvestris,    68,  76 

virginiana,     75 

Plane  Tree,    175 

Plane  Tree  family,    175 

Platanaceae,     175 

Platanus: 

occidentalis,    175 

orientalis,    175 

Plum: 

Porter's,     165,  169 

Red,     169 

Wild, 169 

Wild   Yellow,    169 

Poison: 

Dogwood,     184 

Elder,    184 

Ivy,    182 

Oak,     ; 182,184 

Sumach,   184 

Poplar,     '. 94,96,97 

Balsam,    94 

Birch,    117 

Carolina ,    99 

Downy,   98 

Lombardy, 33,  94 

Silver-leaf ,      94 

Swamp,    98 

White,     94 

Yellow,     159 

Popple,    96,97,159 

Populus,     94 

alba,     94 

balsamifera,    94 

candicans,    94 

deltoides,    99 

grandidentata , 97 

heterophylla, 98 

nigra  var .   italica ,    94 

tremuloides ,    96 

Primus, 165 

alleghaniensis,     165 

americana,    169 

avium ,     165 

Cerasus ,     165 

.cuneata,    165 


230 


Page. 

Mahaleb,    165 

Pennsylvania,    168 

Persica, 165 

pumila,     165 

serotina,     166 

virginiana ,    167 

Pulse  family,  47,  176 

Pussy  Willow,    92 

Pyrus: 

americana,    173 

coronaria ,    172 

Quaking  Aspen,  96 

Quassia  family,   187 

Quercus,    128 

alba,     55,  132 

bicolor, 135 

coccinea,    141 

falcata,   143 

ilicifolia,    56,  144 

imbricaria,    146 

macrocarpa,    —  134 

marylandica,    145 

Muhlenbergii,    136 

nana,     56 

palustris,     140 

phellos,     147 

prinoides,     138 

Prinus,     137 

pumila,    56 

rubra,    56,  139 

stellata,    133 

velutina,     142 

Redbud,    180 

Rhododendron,    31,  208 

maximum,    208 

Rhus: 

canadensis,    182 

copallina,     186 

Cotinus,    182 

glabra,  182 

Toxicodendron,     182 

typhina,    185 

Vernix,     184 

Robinia  Pseudo-Acacia,    181 

Rosaceae,    164 

Rose   Bay, 208 

Rose  family,    164 

Salicaceae,    88 

Salix,    89 

babylonica ,    89 

discolor,    92 

fragilis, 89 

lucida,    91 


Page. 

nigra,     90 

rostra  ta ,     93 

Sambucus  canadensis,  218 

Sapindaceae,    200 

Service,    174 

Sassafrac,    161 

Sassafras,    38,50,161 

variifolium,    161 

Savin,    87 

Saxifrax, 161 

Sequoia,    32,  33 

Service  Berry,    174 

Shad  Bush,    38,48,174 

Sheepberry ,     , .£18,219 

Simarubaceae,     187 

Slippery  Elm,   150 

Smoke  Tree,    182 

Soapberry  family,  200 

Sorrel  Tree,  209 

Sour    Gum,    206,209 

Sour-wood,     209 

Spanish  Oak,    143 

Spice  Bush,   161 

Spruce,     31,36,50,55,78 

Black,    81 

Colorado  Blue,   79 

European, 82 

Norway,     22,79,82 

Pine,    80,  83 

Red,   80 

Stag-bush,   219 

Sugarberry,    152 

Sumach,     38,  48 

Dwarf,    186 

Fragrant,    182 

Mountain,    186 

Poison,    184 

Smooth,    182,185 

Staghorn,    185 

Swamp,    184 

Velvet,    185 

Sycamore,     175 

Tamarack,    77 

Taxaceae,    67 

Taxus  canadensis 67 

Thorn  Apple,    170 

Newcastle,     170 

Scarlet, 171 

Tree,    179 

Thuja  occidentals,    86 


231 


Page. 
Tilia:     • 

americaua ,    202 

heterophylla ,    208 

Michauxii,     202 

Tiliaceae,     202 

Tree  of  Heaven,    187 

Tsuga: 

canadensis,     83 

caroliniana ,    83 

Tulip    Poplar,    159 

Tulip    Tree,     31,33,34,38,44,45,159 

Tupelo,     ; 206 

Ulmus, 149 

americana,    151 

campestris,    149 

fulva,     150 

Umbrella    Tree,     158 

Urticaceae,     148 

Viburnum: 

dentatum 219 

Lentago,     218 

Maple-leaved,    219 

prunifolium , 219 

Sweet,     218 


Page. 

Walnut,    22,38,44,45,101,103 

Black , .38,43,103 

English,     101 

White,     102 

Walnut  family,    100 

Whistle- wood ,    192 

Whitewood,    .159,202 

Willow,     31,45,46,47,89 

Beaked,     93 

Bebb's,    93 

Black,    90 

Crack,     89 

Glaucous,    92 

Glossy,    .'...       91 

Oak,     147 

Pussy,     92 

Shining, 91 

Weeping,     33,  89 

Willow  family,  88 

Winterberry,     189 

Witch-hazel,     45,48,162 

Yellow-wood,     153 

Yew,   American,    67 


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